Articulo de referencia

Lista de conceptos erróneos comunes

Cada entrada de esta lista de conceptos erróneos comunes está redactada como una corrección; los conceptos erróneos en sí mismos están implícitos, no expresados. Estas entradas ...

Cada entrada de esta lista de conceptos erróneos comunes está redactada como una corrección; los conceptos erróneos en sí mismos están implícitos, no expresados. Estas entradas son resúmenes concisos; se pueden consultar los artículos principales para obtener más detalles.

Los conceptos erróneos comunes son puntos de vista o hechos que a menudo se aceptan como ciertos, pero que en realidad son falsos. Por lo general, surgen de la sabiduría convencional (como los cuentos de viejas ), estereotipos , supersticiones , falacias , una mala comprensión de la ciencia o la popularización de la pseudociencia . Algunos conceptos erróneos comunes también se consideran leyendas urbanas y, a veces, están relacionados con pánicos morales .

Artes y cultura

Negocio

  • Las leyes federales de curso legal en los Estados Unidos no exigen que las empresas, personas u organizaciones privadas acepten efectivo como forma de pago, aunque debe considerarse como pago válido de deudas cuando se ofrece a un acreedor. [1]
Una fotografía de Adolf Dassler , el homónimo de Adidas ( c.  1915 )
  • Adidas no es un acrónimo de "Todo el día sueño con deportes", "Todo el día sueño con fútbol" o " Todo el día sueño con sexo ". La empresa recibió el nombre de su fundador Adolf "Adi" Dassler en 1949. La primera publicación encontrada de este último acrónimo fue en 1978, como una broma. [2] [3]
  • Las letras "AR" en AR-15 significan "ArmaLite Rifle", lo que refleja la empresa ( ArmaLite ) que originalmente fabricó el arma. No significan " rifle de asalto ". [4] [5]
  • El Chevrolet Nova se vendió bien en los mercados latinoamericanos; General Motors no le cambió el nombre. Si bien no va significa "no va" en español, nova se entendió fácilmente como "nuevo". [6]
  • La imagen común de Santa Claus (Papá Noel) como un hombre corpulento y alegre con ropas rojas no fue creada por The Coca-Cola Company como herramienta publicitaria. Santa Claus ya había adoptado esta forma en la cultura popular estadounidense a fines del siglo XIX, mucho antes de que Coca-Cola utilizara su imagen en la década de 1930. [7]
  • El contorno de la botella de Coca-Cola no fue diseñado por el famoso diseñador industrial Raymond Loewy . [8] [9]
  • Netflix no se fundó después de que Blockbuster le cobrara a su cofundador Reed Hastings una multa de 40 dólares por pagos atrasados . Hastings inventó la historia para resumir la propuesta de valor de Netflix , y los fundadores de Netflix en realidad se inspiraron en Amazon . [10]
  • PepsiCo nunca llegó a poseer la "sexta armada más poderosa" del mundo después de un acuerdo con la Unión Soviética. En 1989, Pepsi adquirió varios buques de guerra fuera de servicio como parte de un acuerdo de trueque. [11] [12] Los petroleros fueron arrendados o vendidos y los demás barcos se vendieron como chatarra. [13] Un acuerdo posterior involucró otros 10 barcos. [14]

Comida y cocina

  • El dorado no retiene la humedad de la carne; de ​​hecho, hace que pierda algo de humedad. La carne se dora para dorarla, lo que afecta su color, sabor y textura. [15]
  • Estofar la carne no le aporta humedad; de hecho, hace que pierda algo de humedad. La humedad parece añadirse cuando la cocción suave descompone el tejido conectivo y el colágeno , que lubrican y ablandan las fibras. [16] [17]
  • Los mejillones y las almejas que no se abren al cocinarse pueden cocinarse completamente y ser seguros para comer. [18] [19] [20]
  • Los Twinkies , un pastelito estadounidense considerado generalmente como " comida basura ", tienen una vida útil de alrededor de 25 días, a pesar de la afirmación común (generalmente jocosa) de que siguen siendo comestibles durante décadas. [21] La vida útil oficial es de 45 días. Los Twinkies normalmente permanecen en los estantes de las tiendas durante 7 a 10 días. [22]
  • Los alimentos envasados, si se almacenan correctamente, se pueden consumir sin problemas después de su fecha de caducidad. Si bien algunos estados de EE. UU. regulan las fechas de caducidad de algunos productos, por lo general, las fechas de caducidad y de consumo preferente son las que recomiendan los fabricantes para garantizar una mejor calidad. [23]
  • Guardar el pan en el refrigerador hace que se ponga rancio más rápido que dejarlo a temperatura ambiente. [24] [25] Sin embargo, retarda el crecimiento de moho. [26]
  • La miel cristalizada no ha caducado. La cristalización de la miel se produce por temperaturas frías , un alto nivel de glucosa y la presencia de polen . La cristalización se puede revertir calentándola suavemente. [27] [28]
  • Las semillas no son la parte más picante de los chiles . De hecho, las semillas contienen una cantidad baja de capsaicina , uno de los varios compuestos que inducen la sensación de picor (pungencia) en los mamíferos. La mayor concentración de capsaicina se encuentra en el tejido placentario (la médula ) al que están adheridas las semillas. [29] [30]
  • La carne de pavo no tiene un contenido particularmente alto de triptófano y no provoca más somnolencia que otros alimentos. La somnolencia después de comidas copiosas, como la cena de Navidad, generalmente se debe a comer en exceso. [31]
  • Los tuestes más oscuros del café no siempre contienen más cafeína que los tuestes más claros. Cuando el café se tuesta, se expande y pierde agua. Cuando el café resultante se muele y se mide volumétricamente , los tuestes más densos y claros tienen más café por taza, lo que significa que contienen más cafeína. [32] [33]
  • El whisky bourbon no tiene por qué destilarse en Kentucky. [34] El bourbon también se destila en estados como Nueva York, California, Wyoming y Washington, ya que el requisito legal es únicamente que se elabore en los EE . UU . Sin embargo, Kentucky produce la mayoría del bourbon. [35] [36]
  • El uso de un jabón suave en utensilios de cocina de hierro fundido bien curados no dañará el curado. [37] Esto no se debe a que los jabones modernos sean más suaves que los antiguos. [38]
  • Sushi no significa marisco crudo; algunos sushi, como el kappamaki , no contienen marisco. La palabra hace referencia al arroz preparado con vinagre que contiene el plato. [39]
  • La pimienta de Jamaica no es una mezcla de especias. [40] [41] Es una especia única, llamada así porque supuestamente combina los sabores y aromas de muchas especias, especialmente la canela , la nuez moscada , el clavo y la pimienta negra . [42]

Historia de la comida y la bebida

Las galletas de la suerte están asociadas con la cocina china , pero en realidad se originaron en Japón y casi nunca se comen en China, donde se las considera algo estadounidense.
  • El steak tartar no fue inventado por los guerreros mongoles que ablandaban la carne de caballo bajo sus sillas de montar. [43] Es probable que su nombre se deba a la salsa tártara francesa , que evolucionó a partir de un plato francés de principios del siglo XX en el que la salsa se servía con filetes. [44]
  • Marco Polo no introdujo la pasta en Italia desde China. [45] La idea errónea se originó como material promocional en el Macaroni Journal , un boletín publicado por una asociación de fabricantes de pasta estadounidenses. [46]
  • En la Edad Media no se utilizaban especias para enmascarar el sabor de la carne podrida antes de refrigerarla. Las especias eran un artículo de lujo caro; quienes podían permitírselo podían permitirse comer buena carne, y no hay documentos contemporáneos que exijan el uso de especias para disfrazar el sabor de la carne en mal estado. [47]
  • Los cocineros de Catalina de Médici no introdujeron alimentos y técnicas italianas en la corte real francesa, sentando las bases para el desarrollo de la alta cocina francesa . [48]
  • La crema batida no fue inventada por François Vatel en 1661 y luego nombrada en el Château de Chantilly , donde se servía de manera destacada; hay recetas similares atestiguadas al menos un siglo antes en Francia e Inglaterra. [49] [50]
  • Dom Pérignon no inventó el champán. El vino empieza a burbujear naturalmente después de ser prensado, y en aquella época las burbujas se consideraban un defecto que Pérignon intentó eliminar sin éxito. [51] [52]
  • Las patatas fritas no fueron inventadas por un frustrado George Speck en respuesta a un cliente, a veces identificado como Cornelius Vanderbilt , que se quejaba de que sus patatas fritas eran demasiado gruesas y no lo suficientemente saladas. [53] [54] Las recetas de patatas fritas se publicaron ya en 1817. [55] La idea errónea se popularizó gracias a una campaña publicitaria de 1973 de la St. Regis Paper Company. [56]
  • George Washington Carver no fue el inventor de la mantequilla de maní. [57] La ​​primera patente relacionada con la mantequilla de maní fue presentada por John Harvey Kellogg en 1895, y la mantequilla de maní fue utilizada por los incas siglos antes de eso. [ 58] [59] Carver recopiló cientos de usos para los maníes, además de los usos para las nueces pecanas y las batatas. [58] [60] Un artículo de opinión de William F. Buckley Jr. puede haber sido la fuente de la idea errónea. [57]
  • Las galletas de la suerte no se encuentran en la cocina china , a pesar de su presencia en los restaurantes chinos de Estados Unidos y otros países occidentales. Tienen su origen en Japón y fueron introducidas en los EE. UU. por los japoneses. [61] En China, se consideran estadounidenses y son poco comunes. [62]
  • Julio César no inventó la ensalada César. Su creador fue César Cardini , un restaurador italoamericano, en Tijuana, México , en 1924. [63] [64]
  • Hydrox no es una imitación de las Oreos . Hydrox, inventado en 1908, es cuatro años anterior a las Oreos y al principio era más popular que ellas. El hecho de que se dijera que el nombre "Hydrox" sonara como un detergente para ropa contribuyó a su caída en el mercado. [65] [66]
  • La diferencia entre el sabor de un caramelo con "sabor a plátano" y un plátano real no se debe a que el primero esté diseñado específicamente para replicar el sabor de los plátanos Gros Michel , la variedad que dominó el mercado estadounidense del plátano antes del auge de los plátanos Cavendish . Todas las variedades de plátano obtienen su sabor de una mezcla compleja de muchos compuestos, mientras que un solo compuesto, el acetato de isoamilo , le da su sabor al caramelo de plátano. El acetato de isoamilo se produce de forma natural en los plátanos, así como en muchas otras frutas y bebidas fermentadas. [67] Está más concentrado en los plátanos Gros Michel que en los plátanos Cavendish, pero su uso en la producción de caramelos se debió a su producción sencilla, no a ningún parecido específico con el sabor de un plátano. Los caramelos con sabor a él se han etiquetado como "sabor a plátano" y "sabor a pera". [68] [69]

Hornos microondas

  • Los hornos microondas no están sintonizados con ninguna frecuencia de resonancia específica para las moléculas de agua en los alimentos. [70] [71] Cocinan los alimentos mediante calentamiento dieléctrico de moléculas polares, en particular agua y grasas. [72]
  • Los hornos microondas no cocinan los alimentos de adentro hacia afuera. Las microondas de 2,45 GHz solo pueden penetrar aproximadamente de 1 a 1,5 pulgadas ( 2,5 a 3,8 cm) de ancho.+12 3+34 centímetros) en la mayoría de los alimentos. Las porciones internas de los alimentos más gruesos se calientan principalmente por el calor conducido desde las capas externas. [73] [74] [75]
  • La radiación producida por un horno microondas no es ionizante, similar a la luz visible o las ondas de radio. Por lo tanto, no tiene los riesgos de cáncer asociados con la radiación ionizante , como los rayos X y las partículas de alta energía , ni hace que los alimentos sean radiactivos. Toda la radiación de microondas se disipa en forma de calor. Los estudios a largo plazo con roedores para evaluar el riesgo de cáncer hasta ahora no han logrado identificar carcinogenicidad alguna de la radiación de microondas de 2,45 GHz, incluso con niveles de exposición crónica (es decir, una gran fracción de la esperanza de vida) mucho mayores que los que los humanos probablemente encuentren en cualquier horno con fugas. El riesgo de lesión por exposición directa a las microondas no es acumulativo, sino que es el resultado de una exposición de alta intensidad que resulta en quemaduras en los tejidos, de la misma manera que un láser de alta intensidad puede quemar. [76] [77]
  • Cocinar alimentos en microondas no reduce significativamente su valor nutritivo y puede conservarlos mejor que otros procesos de cocción debido a que los tiempos de cocción son más cortos. [78]

Cine y televisión

Idioma

idioma en Inglés

  • Irregardless es una palabra que aparece en numerosos diccionarios junto con otrostérminos no estándar , de jerga o coloquiales . [96] [97]
  • Está permitido terminar una oración con una preposición . [98] La supuesta regla en contra de esto se originó en un intento de imitar el latín, pero los lingüistas modernos coinciden en que es una parte natural y orgánica del idioma inglés. [99] De manera similar, los manuales de estilo y uso modernos permiten infinitivos divididos . [100]
  • Los hablantes afroamericanos del inglés vernáculo no reemplazan simplemente "is" por "be" en todos los tiempos, sin añadir ningún significado. De hecho, los hablantes de AAVE usan "be" para marcar un aspecto gramatical habitual que no se distingue explícitamente en el inglés estándar. [101]
  • El " 420 " no se originó en la policía de Los Ángeles ni en el código penal por el uso de marihuana. [102] La sección 420 del Código Penal de California prohíbe la obstrucción del acceso a tierras públicas. [102] [103] El uso del "420" comenzó en 1971 en la escuela secundaria San Rafael , donde un grupo de estudiantes iba a fumar a las 4:20 p. m. [102]
  • La palabra crap no se originó como una formación anterior del apellido apropiado del fontanero británico Thomas Crapper . [104] La palabra crap en última instancia proviene del latín medieval crappa . [104] [105]
  • La palabra fuck no se originó en la Edad Media como un acrónimo . [106] Las siglas propuestas incluyen "fornicar con el consentimiento del rey" o "por conocimiento carnal ilícito", utilizado como señal colocada sobre los adúlteros en el cepo. Tampoco se originó como una corrupción de "pluck yew" (un modismo falsamente atribuido a los ingleses para tensar un arco largo ). [106] [107] [108] Lo más probable es que se derive del holandés medio u otras lenguas germánicas , donde significaba "empujar" o "copular con" ( fokken en holandés medio), "copular", o "golpear, empujar, copular" o "pene". [107] De cualquier manera, estas variaciones se habrían derivado de la raíz indoeuropea -peuk , que significa "pinchar". [107]
  • La expresión " regla de oro " no tiene su origen en una ley inglesa que permitiera a un hombre golpear a su esposa con un palo no más grueso que su pulgar, y no hay evidencia de que tal ley haya existido jamás. [109] La expresión tiene su origen a finales del siglo XVII a partir de varios oficios en los que las cantidades se medían por comparación con el ancho o largo de un pulgar. [109] [110]
  • El término " leyes azules ", que designa leyes que prohíben ciertas actividades en días específicos, no se originó a partir de que dichas leyes se escribieran originalmente en papel azul. [111] [112]
  • La palabra the nunca se pronunció ni se deletreó "ye" en inglés antiguo o medio . [113] La confusión, que se ve en la frase común " ye olde ", se deriva del uso del carácter thorn (þ), que en inglés medio representaba el sonido que ahora se representa en inglés moderno por "th". [114] Esto evolucionó a medida que las primeras imprentas sustituyeron la palabra the por "yͤ", un carácter "y" con una "e" superíndice. [115]
  • El insulto antiitaliano wop no tiene su origen en un acrónimo para "sin papeles" [116] o "sin pasaporte"; [117] [118] en realidad se deriva del término guappo (que significa más o menos matón ), del español guapo . [119]
"Xmas", junto con un Papá Noel moderno, utilizado en una postal navideña (1910)
  • La Navidad no surgió como un plan secular para "sacar a Cristo de la Navidad". [118] X representa la letra griega chi , la primera letra de Χριστός ( Christós ), "Cristo" en griego, [120] como se encuentra en el símbolo chi-rho ΧΡ desde el siglo IV. En inglés, "X" se utilizó por primera vez como abreviatura de "Cristo" en 1021. [121] [122]

Derecho, crimen y ejército

  • No es un sesgo sistémico lo que hace que la custodia exclusiva de los hijos se conceda con mayor frecuencia a las mujeres que a los hombres, sino que es más bien que los hombres rara vez la impugnan o la buscan. [123]
  • En Singapur, el uso de chicles no se castiga con azotes . Aunque la importación y venta de chicles es ilegal en Singapur desde 1992 y el castigo corporal sigue siendo una pena aplicable para determinados delitos en el país, ambos hechos no están relacionados: los delitos relacionados con el uso de chicles siempre han estado sujetos únicamente a multas y encarcelamiento, y la posesión o el consumo de chicles en sí no es ilegal. [124]
  • Los empleados de la organización policial internacional Interpol no pueden realizar investigaciones, detener a criminales o utilizar pasaportes falsos . [ aclaración necesaria ] El papel de Interpol es facilitar la comunicación internacional entre los organismos encargados de hacer cumplir la ley de estados soberanos . [125] [126]
  • No se han probado casos de extraños que hayan matado o herido permanentemente a niños al esconder intencionalmente venenos u objetos afilados como hojas de afeitar en caramelos o manzanas durante la fiesta de Halloween y la creencia ha sido "totalmente desacreditada". Sin embargo, en al menos un caso, miembros adultos de la familia han difundido esta historia para encubrir el filicidio . [127]
  • Nunca se ha documentado un caso de gatos negros domésticos torturados o sacrificados ritualmente en torno a Halloween. Cuando se han documentado muertes violentas de gatos negros en torno a Halloween, la muerte se ha atribuido generalmente a depredadores naturales, como coyotes, águilas o aves rapaces. [128]
  • No es necesario esperar 24 horas antes de presentar una denuncia por desaparición de una persona . Cuando hay evidencia de violencia o de una ausencia inusual, es importante iniciar una investigación con prontitud. [129] [130] Los expertos en criminología afirman que las primeras 72 horas de una investigación de desaparición de una persona son las más críticas. [131]

Estados Unidos

Las tasas de delitos violentos en Estados Unidos disminuyeron significativamente entre 1991 y 2022.
  • La delincuencia en los Estados Unidos disminuyó entre 1993 y 2022; la tasa de delitos violentos por cada 100.000 personas se redujo casi un 50% y la tasa de delitos contra la propiedad se redujo en más de la mitad. [132] El número de homicidios con armas de fuego también disminuyó. [133]
Tasas de arrestos en Texas entre 2012 y 2018
  • Los inmigrantes indocumentados en los EE. UU. tienen tasas de criminalidad sustancialmente más bajas que los ciudadanos nacidos en los EE. UU. [134] [135] En comparación con los inmigrantes indocumentados, los ciudadanos nacidos en los EE. UU. tienen más del doble de probabilidades de ser arrestados por delitos violentos, 2,5 veces más probabilidades de ser arrestados por delitos de drogas y más de 4 veces más probabilidades de ser arrestados por delitos contra la propiedad. [135] Los inmigrantes tienen un 60% menos de probabilidades de ser encarcelados que los ciudadanos nacidos en los EE. UU. [136]
  • La Primera Enmienda de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos generalmente sólo impide las restricciones gubernamentales a las libertades de religión , expresión , prensa , reunión o petición , [137] no las restricciones impuestas por otras entidades a menos que actúen en nombre del gobierno . [138] [139] Otras leyes pueden limitar la capacidad de las empresas privadas y los individuos para restringir la libertad de expresión de otros. [140]
  • En los Estados Unidos, no se puede desestimar el caso de un acusado simplemente porque no se le leyeron sus derechos Miranda en el momento de su arresto. Las advertencias Miranda cubren los derechos de una persona cuando es detenida y luego interrogada por las fuerzas del orden. [141] Si a una persona no se le da una advertencia Miranda antes de que se lleve a cabo el interrogatorio, las declaraciones que haga durante el interrogatorio pueden no ser admisibles en un juicio. La fiscalía aún puede presentar otras formas de evidencia, o declaraciones hechas durante interrogatorios en los que se le leyeron al acusado sus derechos Miranda, para obtener una condena. [142]
  • Estados Unidos no exige que los agentes de policía se identifiquen como tales en caso de una operación encubierta o de otro tipo, y los agentes de policía pueden mentir cuando realizan ese tipo de trabajo. [143] La defensa basada en la incitación a cometer un delito se centra en cambio en si el acusado fue indebidamente inducido por presiones indebidas de funcionarios del gobierno a cometer delitos que de otro modo no habría cometido. [144]
  • En Estados Unidos no es ilegal gritar "fuego" en un teatro lleno de gente . Aunque a menudo se da como ejemplo de un discurso que no está protegido por la Primera Enmienda, no es ni ha sido nunca una ley vinculante. La frase tiene su origen en la opinión del juez Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. en el caso Schenck v. United States de la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos en 1919, que sostuvo que el discurso del acusado en oposición al reclutamiento durante la Primera Guerra Mundial no estaba protegido por la libertad de expresión. Sin embargo, ese caso no se trataba de gritar "fuego" y la decisión fue revocada posteriormente por Brandenburg v. Ohio en 1969. [145] [146]
  • Las Fuerzas Armadas de los Estados Unidos han prohibido en general el alistamiento militar como una forma de sentencia diferida (es decir, una opción para que los convictos eviten la cárcel) desde la década de 1980. [147] Los protocolos de la Marina de los Estados Unidos desalientan la práctica, mientras que las otras cuatro ramas tienen regulaciones específicas contra ella. [148]
  • Las solicitudes de última comida no tienen por qué ser atendidas. [149] Los Estados tienen diversas restricciones sobre lo que se puede solicitar, llegando incluso a no permitirlas en absoluto. [150]
  • Aunque se la conoce popularmente como el "teléfono rojo", la línea directa Moscú-Washington nunca fue una línea telefónica ni se utilizaron teléfonos rojos. La primera implementación de la línea directa utilizó equipos de teletipo , que fueron reemplazados por máquinas de fax en 1988. Desde 2008, la línea directa ha sido un enlace informático seguro a través del cual los dos países intercambian correo electrónico. [151] Además, la línea directa vincula al Kremlin con el Pentágono , no con la Casa Blanca . [152] [153]
  • De la misma manera, el balón nuclear , el maletín que utilizan los presidentes para lanzar ataques nucleares, no contiene un gran botón rojo para lanzar un ataque. Más bien, su uso principal es confirmar la identidad del presidente y facilitar la comunicación con el Pentágono . [154] [155] [156]
  • No se afirmó que los Twinkies fueran la causa de los asesinatos del alcalde de San Francisco , George Moscone , y del supervisor Harvey Milk . En el juicio de Dan White , la defensa argumentó con éxito que la capacidad disminuida de White era resultado de la depresión. Si bien el consumo de Twinkies se citó como evidencia de esta depresión, nunca se afirmó que fuera la causa de los asesinatos. [157] [158]
  • Ni la mafia ni otras organizaciones criminales utilizan ni han utilizado regularmente zapatos de cemento para ahogar a sus víctimas. [159] Solo hay dos casos documentados de este método utilizado en asesinatos: uno en 1964 y otro en 2016 (aunque, en el primero, la víctima tenía bloques de hormigón atados a sus piernas en lugar de estar encerrada en cemento). [160] El ejército francés utilizó zapatos de cemento en argelinos muertos en vuelos de la muerte durante la guerra de Argelia . [161]
  • El embalsamamiento no es un requisito legal en los Estados Unidos. [162] [163] La Comisión Federal de Comercio aprobó una norma en 1984 que prohíbe hacer esta afirmación, para evitar que la industria funeraria promueva la idea errónea con fines de lucro. [164]

Literatura

  • Muchas citas son incorrectas o se atribuyen a personas que nunca las pronunciaron, y las citas de autores oscuros o desconocidos a menudo se atribuyen a figuras más famosas. Entre las personas que suelen citarse incorrectamente se incluyen Mark Twain , Albert Einstein , Adolf Hitler , Winston Churchill , Abraham Lincoln , William Shakespeare , Confucio , Sun Tzu y Buda . [165]
  • La novela Frankenstein de Mary Shelley de 1818 lleva el nombre del científico ficticio Victor Frankenstein , quien creó a la criatura inteligente de la novela, no a la criatura en sí, que nunca se nombra en la novela y ahora suele llamarse el monstruo de Frankenstein . [166] Sin embargo, cuando las adaptaciones posteriores comenzaron a referirse al monstruo en sí como Frankenstein, este uso se estableció bien y algunos ya no lo consideran erróneo. [167] [168]
  • Ernest Hemingway no fue el autor del cuento flash " Se venden zapatos de bebé, sin usar ". [169] El cuento no se le atribuyó hasta décadas después de su muerte. [170]
    Las esculturas clásicas se pintaban originalmente de colores. En la imagen se muestra una reconstrucción de cómo pudo haberse pintado originalmente el Augusto de Prima Porta .

Bellas artes

Música

Música clásica

  • El intervalo musical tritono no fue prohibido por la Iglesia Católica y no se asoció con demonios durante la Edad Media. [177] [178] La música medieval temprana utilizó el tritono en el canto gregoriano para ciertos modos. [179] Guido de Arezzo ( c.  991  – c.  1033 ) fue el primer teórico en desaconsejar el intervalo. [179]
  • Mozart no murió por envenenamiento , y no fue envenenado por su colega Antonio Salieri ni por nadie más. [180] El rumor se originó poco después de la muerte de Salieri y fue dramatizado en la obra de Alexander Pushkin Mozart y Salieri (1832), y más tarde en la obra de 1979 Amadeus de Peter Shaffer y la posterior película Amadeus de 1984. [181]
  • El minueto en sol mayor de Christian Petzold se atribuye comúnmente a Johann Sebastian Bach , aunque la pieza fue identificada en la década de 1970 como un movimiento de una suite para clave de Petzold. La idea errónea proviene de Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach , un libro de partituras de varios compositores (principalmente Bach) en el que se encuentra el minueto. [182] Las composiciones que son dudosas como obras de Bach están catalogadas como " BWV Anh. ", abreviatura de " Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis Anhang" ("Anexo del catálogo de obras de Bach"); el minueto está asignado a BWV Anh. 114.
  • Escuchar a Mozart o música clásica no mejora la inteligencia (ni el cociente intelectual ). Un estudio de 1993 informó de una mejora a corto plazo del razonamiento espacial . [183] ​​[184] Sin embargo, el peso de la evidencia posterior apoya un efecto nulo o efectos a corto plazo relacionados con el aumento del estado de ánimo y la excitación, con resultados mixtos publicados después del informe inicial en Nature . [185] [186] [187] [188]
  • El " Vals del Minuto " tarda, en promedio, dos minutos en interpretarse tal como fue escrito originalmente. [189] Su nombre proviene del adjetivo minute , que significa "pequeño", y no del sustantivo escrito del mismo modo. [190]
  • « Edelweiss » no es el himno nacional de Austria, sino una composición original creada para el musical de 1959 Sonrisas y lágrimas . [191] El himno nacional austriaco es « Land der Berge, Land am Strome » («Tierra de las montañas, tierra sobre el río [ Danubio ]»). [192]
  • La aparición de los Beatles en el Shea Stadium en 1965 no fue la primera vez que se tocaba un concierto de rock en un gran estadio deportivo al aire libre en los EE. UU. Lugares como Elvis Presley en la década de 1950 y los propios Beatles en 1964. [193]
  • Los Monkees no superaron en ventas a los Beatles y los Rolling Stones en 1967. Michael Nesmith originó la afirmación en una entrevista de 1977 como una broma. [194]
  • Los Rolling Stones no estaban tocando " Sympathy for the Devil " en el Altamont Free Concert de 1969 cuando Meredith Hunter fue apuñalada hasta la muerte por un miembro de la sección local de Hells Angels que estaba sirviendo como seguridad. El apuñalamiento ocurrió más tarde mientras la banda estaba tocando " Under My Thumb ". [195] [196]
  • Los álbumes conceptuales no comenzaron con la música rock en la década de 1960. El formato ya había sido empleado por cantantes como Frank Sinatra en las décadas de 1940 y 1950. [197]
  • Cass Elliot ("Mama Cass" de The Mamas & the Papas ) no murió atragantada con un sándwich de jamón. [198] [199] Esta falsedad fue iniciada por su manager, que quería evitar la implicación de que su muerte estaba asociada con el abuso de sustancias. [200]
  • Phil Collins no escribió su éxito de 1981 " In the Air Tonight " sobre ver a alguien ahogándose y luego confrontar a la persona del público que permitió que eso sucediera. Según el propio Collins, se trataba de sus emociones al divorciarse de su primera esposa. [201]
  • Los músicos populares no tienen más probabilidades de morir a los 27 años. La noción de un " Club de los 27 " surgió después de las muertes, en un período de diez meses, de Jimi Hendrix , Janis Joplin y Jim Morrison , y más tarde las muertes de Kurt Cobain y Amy Winehouse . Los estudios estadísticos han demostrado que no hay base científica para esta idea. [202] [203] [204]

Religión

Budismo

  • El monje rechoncho y calvo con orejas alargadas que a menudo se representa riendo, conocido como el "Buda gordo" o "Buda risueño" en Occidente, no es el Buda real, sino un héroe popular budista chino del siglo X llamado Budai . [205] El Buda histórico , Siddhartha Gautama, que vivió en el siglo V a. C., se representa con mayor frecuencia con un peso normal y concentrado en meditación.

cristianismo

  • Lo más probable es que Jesús no naciera el 25 de diciembre, cuando tradicionalmente se celebra su nacimiento como Navidad. Es más probable que su nacimiento fuera en la estación de primavera o quizás en verano. Aunque la era común aparentemente cuenta los años desde el nacimiento de Jesús, [206] es poco probable que naciera en el año 1 d. C. o en el 1 a. C., como implicaría dicho sistema de numeración. Los historiadores modernos estiman una fecha más cercana entre el 6 a. C. y el 4 a. C. [207]
  • La Biblia no dice que exactamente tres magos vinieran a visitar al niño Jesús, ni que fueran reyes, o que montaran en camellos, o que sus nombres fueran Gaspar , Melchor y Baltasar , ni de qué color era su piel. [208] [209] [210] [ cita requerida ] Se infiere que fueron tres magos porque se describen tres regalos, pero la Biblia solo dice que hubo más de un mago. [211] [212] [213]
No existe ninguna evidencia bíblica o histórica que respalde que María Magdalena haya sido prostituta. [214] [215]
  • La idea de que María Magdalena era prostituta antes de conocer a Jesús no se encuentra en la Biblia ni en ninguno de los otros escritos cristianos más antiguos. Ha sido una doctrina debatida en varias tradiciones teológicas si María Magdalena, María de Betania (quien unge los pies de Jesús en Juan 11:1-12) y la " mujer pecadora " anónima que unge los pies de Jesús en Lucas 7:36-50 eran la misma mujer. [214] [215]
  • El apóstol Pablo no cambió su nombre de Saulo, pues nació judío, con la ciudadanía romana heredada de su padre, y por eso llevaba desde su nacimiento un nombre hebreo y uno grecorromano, como menciona Lucas en Hechos 13:9: «...Saulo, también llamado Pablo...». [216]
  • El dogma católico romano de la Inmaculada Concepción no tiene relación con la doctrina cristiana de que María concibió y dio a luz a Jesús siendo virgen . La Inmaculada Concepción es la creencia de que María estaba libre del pecado original desde el momento de su propia concepción por sus padres, Joaquín y Ana . Un error menos común es pensar que la Inmaculada Concepción significa que María misma fue concebida sin relaciones sexuales. [217] [218]
  • El dogma católico romano no dice que el Papa sea libre de pecado (como se cree comúnmente entre los cristianos no católicos) [219] o siempre infalible. [220] El dogma católico desde 1870 sí afirma que una revelación divina del Papa (generalmente llamada ex cathedra ) está libre de error, pero no sostiene que esté siempre libre de error, incluso cuando habla en su capacidad oficial. [221]
  • Los miembros de la Iglesia de Jesucristo de los Santos de los Últimos Días (Iglesia SUD) ya no practican la poligamia . [222] La Iglesia excomulga a cualquier miembro que practique la poligamia dentro de la organización. [223] Algunas sectas fundamentalistas mormonas sí practican la poligamia. [224]
  • El Primer Concilio de Nicea no estableció los libros de la Biblia. Es probable que el Antiguo Testamento ya hubiera sido establecido por los escribas hebreos antes de Cristo. El desarrollo del canon del Nuevo Testamento se completó en su mayor parte en el siglo III antes de que se convocara el Concilio de Nicea en 325; [225] se finalizó, junto con el deuterocanon , en el Concilio de Roma en 382. [226]
  • Constantino el Grande no hizo del cristianismo la religión oficial del Imperio romano. Si bien fue el primer emperador cristiano y promovió la tolerancia religiosa con el Edicto de Milán , el cristianismo no fue declarado religión oficial del Imperio romano hasta el año 380 d. C., unos 43 años después de la muerte de Constantino. [227] [228]
  • Los siete pecados capitales nunca aparecen enumerados en la Biblia. El concepto se originó con Tertuliano y originalmente consistía en nueve vicios. [229] Luego, Gregorio I los redujo a siete . [230]

islam

  • El burka (también transliterado como burka o burkha) suele confundirse con otros tipos de tocados que llevan las mujeres musulmanas, en particular el niqab y el hijab . El burka cubre el cuerpo, la cabeza y el rostro, con una rejilla de malla para ver a través de ella. El niqab cubre el cabello y el rostro, excepto los ojos. El hijab cubre el cabello y el pecho, pero no el rostro. [231]
  • No todas las mujeres musulmanas llevan cubierta la cara o la cabeza. [232]
  • Una fatwa es una opinión jurídica generalmente no vinculante emitida por un erudito islámico según la ley islámica ; por lo tanto, es habitual que haya diferencias entre las fatwas de diferentes autores. La idea errónea de que se trata de una sentencia de muerte se deriva de un decreto emitido por el Ayatolá Ruhollah Khomeini de Irán en 1989, en el que dijo que el autor Salman Rushdie se había ganado una sentencia de muerte por blasfemia . Se debate si se trata de una fatwa. [233] [234]
  • La palabra " yihad " no siempre significa " guerra santa "; su significado literal en árabe es "lucha". Si bien existe la yihad por la espada , la yihad puede ser cualquier esfuerzo o lucha espiritual o moral, [235] [236] como la búsqueda del conocimiento, poner a los demás antes que a uno mismo e invitar a otros al Islam. [237]
  • El Corán no promete a los mártires 72 vírgenes en el cielo. Sí menciona que a todas las personas, mártires o no, se les dan compañeras vírgenes, llamadas huríes , en el cielo, pero no se especifica ningún número. [238] La fuente de las 72 vírgenes es un hadiz en Sunan al-Tirmidhi del Imam Tirmidhi . [239] [240] Los hadices son dichos y actos de Mahoma tal como los han relatado otros, no forman parte del Corán en sí. [241] [239]

judaísmo

La fruta del Jardín del Edén , que a menudo se muestra como una manzana en el arte, no se nombra en el Génesis . [242]

Deportes

  • El césped artificial requiere mantenimiento periódico, como rastrillado y parcheo, para que siga siendo funcional y seguro. [245]
  • El nombre golf no es un acrónimo de “Gentlemen Only, Ladies Forbidden” (Sólo caballeros, prohibido para damas). [246] [247] Puede provenir de la palabra holandesa kolf o kolve , que significa “palo”, [247] o de la palabra escocesa goulf o gowf, que significa “golpear o dar un puñetazo”. [246]
  • El béisbol no fue inventado por Abner Doubleday ni se originó en Cooperstown, Nueva York . Se cree que evolucionó a partir del juego de bate y pelota rounders y adoptó su forma moderna por primera vez en la ciudad de Nueva York. [248]
Marcos Torregrosa luciendo el cinturón negro de BJJ con una barra roja que indica el primer grado

Juegos de vídeo

  • No hay pruebas definitivas de que los videojuegos violentos hagan que las personas se vuelvan violentas . Algunos estudios no han encontrado ningún vínculo entre la agresión y los videojuegos violentos, [253] [254] y la popularidad de los videojuegos ha coincidido con una disminución de la violencia juvenil. [255] [256] El pánico moral en torno a los videojuegos en la década de 1980 hasta la de 2020, junto con varios estudios e incidentes de violencia y legislación en muchos países, probablemente contribuyeron a la proliferación de esta idea. [257] [258]
  • El llamado fallo del " Gandhi nuclear ", en el que el líder pacífico Mahatma Gandhi se volvería inusualmente agresivo si se adoptaba la democracia , [259] no existía ni en el juego Civilization original ni en Civilization II . El diseñador de los juegos, Sid Meier, atribuyó los orígenes del rumor tanto a un hilo de TV Tropes como a una entrada de Know Your Meme , [260] mientras que Reddit y un artículo de Kotaku ayudaron a popularizarlo. [261] El supuesto comportamiento de Gandhi apareció en Civilization V de 2010 [260] como una broma, y ​​en VI de 2016 [262] como una referencia a la leyenda.
  • El gobierno japonés no aprobó una ley que prohibiera a Square Enix lanzar los juegos de Dragon Quest en días laborables porque eso hacía que muchos escolares se saltasen las clases. Esta norma fue impuesta por los propios desarrolladores. [263]
  • El lanzamiento de Space Invaders en 1978 no provocó una escasez de monedas de ¥100 en Japón . La producción de monedas de ¥100 fue inusualmente baja ese año [264] [265] y los especuladores de plata las acapararon o importaron por su alta mezcla de plata . [264] [266] Una campaña publicitaria de Taito y un artículo erróneo de 1980 en New Scientist son las fuentes de esta afirmación. [265]

Historia

Antiguo

  • Las pirámides de Egipto no fueron construidas con mano de obra esclava . La evidencia arqueológica muestra que los trabajadores eran una combinación de trabajadores calificados y agricultores pobres que trabajaban fuera de temporada y que los participantes recibían su salario con alimentos de alta calidad y exenciones de impuestos. [267] [268] La idea de que se utilizaron esclavos se originó con Heródoto , y la idea de que eran israelitas surgió siglos después de que se construyeran las pirámides. [269] [268]
  • En la antigüedad, las galeras no solían ser operadas por esclavos encadenados o prisioneros, como se muestra en películas como Ben Hur , sino por trabajadores asalariados o soldados, y los esclavos solo se utilizaban en tiempos de crisis, y en algunos casos incluso conseguían la libertad después de que la crisis se evitaba. El Egipto ptolemaico fue una posible excepción. [270] [271] Otros tipos de embarcaciones, como los buques mercantes romanos, estaban tripulados por esclavos, a veces incluso con esclavos como capitanes del barco. [272]
  • La tumba de Tutankamón no tiene una inscripción con una maldición sobre quienes la perturben . Esto fue una invención de los medios de comunicación de los periodistas sensacionalistas del siglo XX. [273]
  • La civilización minoica no fue destruida por la erupción del volcán Thera . Los primeros arqueólogos especularon que la erupción pudo haber sido recordada en la parábola de la Atlántida de Platón . Sin embargo, la erupción ocurrió siglos antes del final de la era minoica. [274]
  • Los antiguos griegos no utilizaban la palabra « idiota » ( griego antiguo : ἰδιώτης , romanizadoidiṓtēs ) para menospreciar a las personas que no participaban en la vida cívica. Un ἰδιώτης era simplemente un ciudadano privado en contraposición a un funcionario del gobierno. La palabra también significaba cualquier tipo de no experto o lego, [275] luego, alguien sin educación o ignorante, y mucho más tarde para significar estúpido o deficiente mental. [276]
Los antiguos romanos no utilizaban el saludo romano, como se representa en el cuadro El juramento de los Horacios (1784).
  • El saludo romano , en el que el brazo se extiende completamente hacia adelante o en diagonal con la palma hacia abajo y los dedos tocándose, no se usaba en la antigua Roma. El gesto se asoció por primera vez con la antigua Roma en la pintura de 1784 El juramento de los Horacios del artista francés Jacques-Louis David , que inspiró saludos posteriores, en particular el saludo nazi . [277]
Un vomitorio en un anfiteatro romano de Toulouse
  • Los antiguos romanos ricos no usaban habitaciones llamadas vomitoria para purgar los alimentos durante las comidas para poder seguir comiendo [278] y el vómito no era una parte habitual de las costumbres gastronómicas romanas . [279] Un vomitorium de un anfiteatro o estadio era un pasadizo que permitía una salida rápida al final de un evento. [278]
  • Escipión Emiliano no sembró sal sobre la ciudad de Cartago después de derrotarla en la Tercera Guerra Púnica . [280]
  • Julio César no nació por cesárea . Tal procedimiento habría sido fatal para la madre en ese momento, y la madre de César todavía estaba viva cuando él tenía 45 años. [281] [282]

Edad media

  • La Edad Media no fue «una época de ignorancia , barbarie y superstición »; la Iglesia no colocó la autoridad religiosa sobre la experiencia personal y la actividad racional; y el término « Edad Oscura » es rechazado por los historiadores modernos. [283]
  • Si bien la esperanza de vida moderna es mucho más alta que la de la Edad Media y épocas anteriores, [284] [285] los adultos de la Edad Media no morían de media a los 30 años. Esa era la esperanza de vida al nacer , que estaba sesgada por la elevada mortalidad infantil y adolescente. La esperanza de vida entre los adultos era mucho más alta; [286] un hombre de 21 años en la Inglaterra medieval, por ejemplo, podía esperar vivir hasta los 64 años. [287] [286] Sin embargo, en varios lugares y épocas, la esperanza de vida era notablemente inferior. Por ejemplo, los monjes a menudo morían a los 20 o 30 años. [288]
  • No hay evidencia de que los guerreros vikingos usaran cuernos en sus cascos ; esto habría sido poco práctico en la batalla. [289] [290]
  • Los vikingos no bebían de los cráneos de los enemigos vencidos . Esto se basa en una traducción errónea del uso poético escáldico de ór bjúgviðum hausa (ramas de cráneos) para referirse a los cuernos para beber . [291]
  • Los vikingos no llamaron a Islandia "Islandia" como una estrategia para desalentar la colonización. Según las Sagas de los islandeses , Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson vio icebergs en la isla cuando viajó allí y la bautizó con su nombre. [292] La leyenda popular sostiene que Groenlandia recibió ese nombre con la esperanza de atraer colonos. [293]
  • En el cuento del rey Canuto y la marea , el rey no ordenó a la marea que diera marcha atrás en un ataque de arrogancia delirante. Según la historia, su intención era demostrar que ningún hombre es todopoderoso y que todas las personas deben doblegarse ante fuerzas que escapan a su control, como las mareas. [294]
  • No hay pruebas de que las doncellas de hierro se utilizaran para torturar, o incluso de que se las inventara, en la Edad Media. En cambio, se ensamblaron en el siglo XVIII a partir de varios artefactos encontrados en museos, arsenales y lugares similares para crear objetos espectaculares destinados a la exhibición comercial. [295]
  • Las escaleras de caracol en los castillos no fueron diseñadas en el sentido de las agujas del reloj para obstaculizar a los atacantes diestros. [296] [297] Si bien las escaleras de caracol en el sentido de las agujas del reloj son más comunes en los castillos que en el sentido contrario, eran aún más comunes en las estructuras medievales sin un papel militar, como los edificios religiosos. [298]
  • Las armaduras de placas de los soldados europeos no impedían que los soldados se movieran ni necesitaban una grúa para colocarlos en la silla de montar. Necesitaban poder luchar a pie en caso de que no pudieran montar a caballo y podían montar y desmontar sin ayuda. [299] Sin embargo, las armaduras utilizadas en los torneos a finales de la Edad Media eran significativamente más pesadas que las que se usaban en la guerra. [300]
  • Los historiadores modernos discuten si los cinturones de castidad , dispositivos diseñados para impedir que las mujeres tuvieran relaciones sexuales, fueron inventados en la época medieval. Se cree que la mayoría de los cinturones de castidad existentes son falsificaciones deliberadas del siglo XIX. [301]
Representación medieval de una Tierra esférica

Edad moderna temprana

  • El pueblo mexica del Imperio azteca no confundió a Hernán Cortés y su grupo de desembarco con dioses durante la conquista del imperio por parte de Cortés . Esta noción provino de Francisco López de Gómara, quien nunca fue a México e inventó el mito mientras trabajaba para el retirado Cortés en España años después de la conquista. [307]
  • La élite de la Edad de Oro holandesa vestía ropa negra principalmente como símbolo de estatus, más que por autocontrol puritano . La ropa atraía estatus por la dificultad del proceso de teñido y el costo de los elaborados adornos. [308] [309]
  • Los primeros colonos (comúnmente conocidos como peregrinos ) de la colonia de Plymouth en América del Norte no solían vestir de negro y sus capotas (sombreros) no incluían hebillas. En cambio, su moda se basaba en la de finales de la era isabelina. [310] La imagen tradicional se formó en el siglo XIX, cuando las hebillas eran una especie de emblema de singularidad. [311] (Los puritanos , que se establecieron en la vecina colonia de la bahía de Massachusetts poco después de que los peregrinos llegaran a Plymouth, solían vestir de negro) . [312]
  • Shah Jahan , el emperador mogol indio que encargó el Taj Mahal , no cortó las manos a los 40.000 trabajadores o diseñadores principales, según se rumorea, para no permitir la construcción de otro monumento más hermoso que el Taj Mahal. Este es un mito urbano que se remonta a la década de 1960. [313] [314] [315]
  • La historia de que Isaac Newton se inspiró para investigar la naturaleza de la gravedad cuando una manzana le cayó en la cabeza es casi con toda seguridad apócrifa. Todo lo que Newton dijo fue que la idea le vino cuando estaba sentado "en estado de contemplación" y "fue provocada por la caída de una manzana". [316]
  • En los juicios de Salem, las personas acusadas de brujería no fueron quemadas en la hoguera . De los acusados, diecinueve personas condenadas por brujería fueron ejecutadas en la horca, al menos cinco murieron en prisión y un hombre fue aplastado hasta la muerte con piedras mientras intentaban extraerle una confesión. [317]
Retrato de María Antonieta
La frase " que coman pastel " se suele atribuir erróneamente a María Antonieta .
  • María Antonieta no dijo " que coman pasteles " cuando se enteró de que el campesinado francés se moría de hambre por falta de pan. La frase fue publicada por primera vez en las Confesiones de Rousseau , escritas cuando María Antonieta tenía solo nueve años y no se le atribuye a ella, sino a "una gran princesa". Se le atribuyó por primera vez en 1843. [318]
  • George Washington no tenía dientes de madera . Sus dentaduras postizas estaban hechas de plomo, oro, marfil de hipopótamo, dientes de varios animales, incluidos dientes de caballo y de burro, [319] [320] y dientes humanos, posiblemente comprados a esclavos o personas pobres. [321] [322] Debido a que los dientes de marfil se manchaban rápidamente, es posible que a los ojos de los observadores parecieran de madera. [320]
Las dentaduras postizas de George Washington en exhibición en Mount Vernon .

Moderno

Napoleón en el Belerofonte, de Charles Lock Eastlake . Napoleón era más alto de lo que sugiere su apodo, el Pequeño Caporal .
  • Napoleón Bonaparte no era especialmente bajo para un francés de su tiempo. Tenía la altura de un francés promedio en 1800, pero era bajo para un aristócrata o un oficial. [327] Después de su muerte en 1821, la altura del emperador francés se registró como 5 pies 2 pulgadas en pies franceses , que en medidas inglesas son 5 pies 7 pulgadas (1,70 m). [328] [329]
  • La nariz de la Gran Esfinge de Giza no fue derribada por las tropas de Napoleón durante la campaña francesa en Egipto (1798-1801); ha estado desaparecida al menos desde el siglo X. [330]
  • El Cinco de Mayo no es el Día de la Independencia de México , sino la celebración de la victoria del Ejército mexicano sobre los franceses en la Batalla de Puebla el 5 de mayo de 1862. La Declaración de Independencia de México de España en 1810 se celebra el 16 de septiembre. [331]
  • Los médicos de la época victoriana no inventaron el vibrador para curar la "histeria" femenina provocando el orgasmo. [332]
Albert Einstein , fotografiado a los 14 años, no reprobó matemáticas en la escuela.
  • Albert Einstein no reprobó las clases de matemáticas en la escuela. Einstein comentó: "Nunca reprobé las matemáticas... Antes de cumplir los quince años ya dominaba el cálculo diferencial e integral". [333] Sin embargo, Einstein sí reprobó su primer examen de ingreso a la Escuela Politécnica Federal Suiza (ETH) en 1895, cuando era dos años más joven que sus compañeros de estudios, pero obtuvo muy buenas calificaciones en las secciones de matemáticas y ciencias, y luego aprobó en su segundo intento. [334]
  • Alfred Nobel no omitió las matemáticas en el Premio Nobel debido a una rivalidad con el matemático Gösta Mittag-Leffler , ya que hay poca evidencia de que los dos se conocieran, ni tampoco fue porque la esposa de Nobel tuviera una aventura con un matemático, ya que Nobel nunca se casó. La explicación más probable es que Nobel creía que las matemáticas eran demasiado teóricas para beneficiar a la humanidad, así como su falta personal de interés en el campo. [335] (Véase también: Controversias del Premio Nobel )
  • Grigori Rasputin no fue asesinado a base de tortas y vino con cianuro , de varios disparos y luego arrojado al río Nevka Menor , cuando sobrevivió a los dos primeros. Una autopsia contemporánea informó que fue asesinado simplemente a tiros. Un relato sensacionalista de las memorias del cómplice príncipe Félix Yusupov es la única fuente de esta historia. [336] [337] [338]
  • El dictador italiano Benito Mussolini no "logró que los trenes funcionaran a tiempo". Gran parte de las obras de reparación se habían realizado antes de que él y el Partido Fascista llegaran al poder en 1922. Además, el supuesto cumplimiento de los horarios por parte de los ferrocarriles italianos era más propaganda que realidad. [339]
  • No hay evidencia de que la caballería polaca haya montado una carga valiente pero inútil contra los tanques alemanes usando lanzas y sables durante la invasión alemana de Polonia en 1939. Esta historia puede haberse originado a partir de los esfuerzos de propaganda alemanes después de la carga en Krojanty . [340]
  • Los nazis no utilizaban el término "nazi" para referirse a sí mismos. El nombre completo del Partido Nazi era Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (Partido Nacional Socialista Obrero Alemán), y sus miembros se referían a sí mismos como Nationalsozialisten (Nacionalsocialistas) o Parteigenossen (camaradas del partido). El término "nazi" se utilizaba antes del ascenso de los nazis como una palabra coloquial y despectiva para referirse a un granjero o campesino atrasado. Los opositores de los nacionalsocialistas abreviaron su nombre como "nazi" para lograr un efecto despectivo y el término fue popularizado por los exiliados alemanes fuera de Alemania. [341]
  • Durante la ocupación nazi de Dinamarca durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el rey Christian X de Dinamarca no frustró los intentos nazis de identificar a los judíos usando una estrella amarilla . Los judíos en Dinamarca nunca fueron obligados a usar la estrella de David . La resistencia danesa ayudó a la mayoría de los judíos a huir del país antes del final de la guerra. [342]
  • No todos los skinheads son supremacistas blancos ; muchos skinheads se identifican como de izquierdas o apolíticos , y muchos se oponen al racismo, como los Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice . Originario de la clase trabajadora británica de la década de 1960, muchos de sus seguidores iniciales eran negros y antillanos ; se asoció con la supremacía blanca en la década de 1970 como resultado de grupos de extrema derecha como el Frente Nacional que reclutaron a la subcultura para obtener apoyo de base. [343] [344] [345] [346]

Estados Unidos

La bandera que supuestamente diseñó Betsy Ross
  • Betsy Ross no diseñó ni fabricó la primera bandera oficial de los EE. UU., a pesar de que se la conoce ampliamente como la bandera de Betsy Ross . La afirmación la hizo por primera vez su nieto un siglo después. [347]
Las zonas cubiertas por la Proclamación de Emancipación están en rojo, las zonas de tenencia de esclavos que no están cubiertas están en azul. La Decimotercera Enmienda fue el artículo que abolió la esclavitud legal en todo Estados Unidos, no la Proclamación de Emancipación.
  • Abraham Lincoln no escribió su discurso de Gettysburg en el dorso de un sobre durante su viaje en tren a Gettysburg. El discurso estaba prácticamente terminado antes de que Lincoln saliera de Washington rumbo a Gettysburg. [348] [349]
  • La Proclamación de Emancipación no liberó a todos los esclavos en los Estados Unidos; la Proclamación se aplicó en los diez estados que todavía estaban en rebelión en 1863, y por lo tanto no cubrió a los casi quinientos mil esclavos en los estados fronterizos esclavistas que no se habían separado. [350] [351] [352] (Véase también: Cronología de la abolición de la esclavitud )
  • De la misma manera, la orden del 19 de junio de 1865, celebrada anualmente como " Juneteenth ", sólo se aplicaba en Texas , no en todo Estados Unidos. La Decimotercera Enmienda , ratificada y proclamada en diciembre de 1865, fue el artículo que prohibía la esclavitud en todo el país, excepto como castigo por un delito. [350] [351]
  • La Compra de Alaska fue vista en general como positiva o neutral en los Estados Unidos, tanto entre el público como en la prensa. Los opositores a la compra que la caracterizaron como " la locura de Seward ", en alusión a William H. Seward , el Secretario de Estado que la negoció, representaban una opinión minoritaria en ese momento. [353] [354]
  • Los sombreros de vaquero no fueron inicialmente populares en la frontera occidental estadounidense , siendo los sombreros derby o bombín el tocado típico de elección. [355] La intensa comercialización del modelo Stetson " Boss of the Plains " en los años posteriores a la Guerra Civil estadounidense fue la principal fuerza impulsora detrás de la popularidad del sombrero de vaquero, con su característica parte superior abollada que no se convirtió en estándar hasta cerca del final del siglo XIX. [356]
  • El gran incendio de Chicago de 1871 no fue provocado por la patada de la vaca de la señora O'Leary a un farol. Un periodista admitió más tarde haber inventado la historia para hacer un texto más vistoso. [357]
  • No hay evidencia de que Frederic Remington , en misión en Cuba en 1897, telegrafiara a William Randolph Hearst : "No habrá guerra. Deseo regresar", ni de que Hearst respondiera: "Por favor, quédese. Usted proporcione las fotografías y yo proporcionaré la guerra". La anécdota fue incluida originalmente en un libro de James Creelman y probablemente nunca sucedió. [358]
  • La electrocución de Topsy el elefante no fue una manifestación contra la corriente alterna organizada por Thomas A. Edison durante la guerra de las corrientes . Edison nunca estuvo en Luna Park , y la electrocución de Topsy tuvo lugar diez años después de la guerra de las corrientes. [359] Este mito puede deberse al hecho de que la grabación del evento fue producida por la compañía cinematográfica Edison .
  • Mary Mallon , conocida como "Mary Tifoidea", testificó en su juicio de 1909 que no creía que fuera contagiosa mientras fuera portadora asintomática de la bacteria Salmonella typhi . [360] Más tarde infectó a muchos otros, mientras usaba nombres falsos y evadía a las autoridades sanitarias.
  • Los apellidos de los inmigrantes no se americanizaban (voluntariamente, por error o de otra manera) al llegar a Ellis Island . Los funcionarios no llevaban registros aparte de comprobar los manifiestos de los barcos creados en el punto de origen, y simplemente no había ningún papeleo que les permitiera cambiar sus apellidos, y mucho menos alguna ley. En esa época, en Nueva York, cualquiera podía cambiar la ortografía de su nombre simplemente usando esa nueva ortografía. [361] A estos nombres se los suele denominar " Especial de Ellis Island ".
  • La prohibición no hizo ilegal el consumo de alcohol en los Estados Unidos. La Decimoctava Enmienda y la posterior Ley Volstead prohibieron la producción, venta y transporte de "licores embriagantes" dentro de los Estados Unidos, pero su posesión y consumo nunca fueron ilegalizados. [362]
  • Los corredores de bolsa angustiados no se lanzaron a la muerte en masa después del desplome de Wall Street de 1929. Aunque los medios de comunicación informaron ampliamente sobre el fenómeno, este fue un fenómeno de número limitado y la tasa general de suicidios después del desplome de 1929 no aumentó. [363]
  • No hubo un brote generalizado de pánico en los Estados Unidos en respuesta a la adaptación radiofónica de 1938 de La guerra de los mundos de HG Wells por parte de Orson Welles . Solo una parte muy pequeña de la audiencia de radio la escuchaba, pero los periódicos, ansiosos por desacreditar a la radio como competidora de la publicidad , resaltaron informes aislados de incidentes y aumentaron las llamadas de emergencia. Tanto Welles como CBS, que inicialmente habían reaccionado con disculpas, luego se dieron cuenta de que el mito los beneficiaba y lo adoptaron activamente en años posteriores. [364]
  • El piloto estadounidense Kenneth Arnold no acuñó el término platillo volante ; no utilizó esa frase al describir su avistamiento de ovnis en 1947 en el Monte Rainier , Washington . El East Oregonian , el primer periódico que informó sobre el incidente, simplemente lo citó diciendo que los objetos "volaban como un platillo" y eran "planos como un molde para tarta". [365] [366] [367] [368]
  • El senador estadounidense George Smathers nunca pronunció un discurso ante una audiencia poco educada en el que describiera a su oponente, Claude Pepper , como un "extrovertido" cuya hermana era una "actriz de teatro", con la aparente esperanza de que los confundieran con palabras que sonaran similares, como "pervertido" y "lesbiana". Smathers ofreció 10.000 dólares a cualquiera que pudiera demostrar que había pronunciado el discurso; nunca se lo reclamaron. [369]
  • Dwight D. Eisenhower no ordenó la construcción del Sistema de Autopistas Interestatales con el único propósito de evacuar ciudades en caso de una guerra nuclear. Si bien había motivaciones militares, las principales eran civiles. [370] [371]
  • Rosa Parks no estaba sentada en la sección delantera ("blanca") del autobús durante el evento que la hizo famosa e incitó al boicot a los autobuses de Montgomery . En cambio, estaba sentada en la parte delantera de la sección trasera ("de color") del autobús, donde se esperaba que se sentaran los afroamericanos, y rechazó una orden del conductor de desocupar su asiento a favor de un pasajero blanco cuando la sección "blanca" del autobús se había llenado. [372]
  • El intelectual y activista afroamericano WEB Du Bois no renunció a su ciudadanía estadounidense mientras vivía en Ghana poco antes de su muerte . [373] [374] A principios de 1963, su afiliación al Partido Comunista y su apoyo a la Unión Soviética llevaron al Departamento de Estado de los Estados Unidos a no renovar su pasaporte mientras ya estaba en Ghana. Después de salir de la embajada, manifestó su intención de renunciar a su ciudadanía en protesta, pero aunque adoptó la ciudadanía ghanesa, en realidad nunca renunció a su ciudadanía estadounidense. [375] [373]
  • Las palabras del presidente estadounidense John F. Kennedy " Ich bin ein Berliner " son la expresión alemana estándar para "soy un berlinés (ciudadano de Berlín)". [376] No es cierto que al usar el artículo indefinido ein , cambiara el significado de la oración del pretendido "soy un ciudadano de Berlín" a "soy un berlinés ", siendo un berlinés un tipo de pastel alemán, similar a un donut de gelatina , que divierte a los alemanes. [377] Además, el pastel, que es conocido por muchos nombres en Alemania, no se llamaba entonces -ni ahora- comúnmente "berliner" en el área de Berlín. [378]
  • Cuando Kitty Genovese fue asesinada a la puerta de su apartamento en 1964, no había 38 vecinos que se quedaron de brazos cruzados y no llamaron a la policía hasta después de que ella estuviera muerta, como se informó inicialmente [379], lo que provocó una indignación pública generalizada que persistió durante años e incluso se convirtió en la base de una teoría de la psicología social . De hecho, los testigos solo escucharon breves partes del ataque y no se dieron cuenta de lo que estaba ocurriendo, y solo seis o siete vieron algo en realidad. Un testigo, que había llamado a la policía, dijo cuando fue entrevistado por los oficiales en el lugar: "No quería involucrarme", [380] una actitud que luego se atribuyó a todos los vecinos. [381]
  • Aunque una revista de arquitectura lo elogió antes de que se construyera como "el mejor apartamento alto del año", el proyecto de viviendas Pruitt-Igoe en St. Louis, Missouri, considerado el epítome de los fracasos de la renovación urbana en las ciudades estadounidenses después de ser demolido a principios de la década de 1970, nunca ganó ningún premio por su diseño. [382] La firma de arquitectura que diseñó los edificios ganó un premio por un proyecto anterior en St. Louis, que puede haber sido confundido con Pruitt-Igoe. [383]
  • Hay pocas pruebas documentales contemporáneas que respalden la idea de que los manifestantes contra la guerra escupieron a los veteranos estadounidenses de Vietnam al regresar a Estados Unidos. Esta creencia se detalla en algunos relatos biográficos y luego se popularizó en películas como Rambo . [384] [385] [386]
  • Las mujeres no quemaron sus sujetadores en el exterior del concurso Miss América de 1969 como protesta en apoyo a la liberación de la mujer. Sí tiraron simbólicamente los sujetadores a un cubo de basura, junto con otros artículos considerados emblemáticos de la posición de la mujer en la sociedad estadounidense, como fregonas, maquillaje y zapatos de tacón alto. El mito de la quema de sujetadores surgió cuando un periodista sugirió hipotéticamente que las mujeres podrían hacerlo en el futuro, como los hombres de la época quemaban sus carnés de reclutamiento. [387]
  • El programa espacial estadounidense de los años 1960 nunca tuvo una amplia base de apoyo público y no unificó a Estados Unidos. La creencia de que el programa Apolo valía el tiempo y el dinero invertidos alcanzó un máximo del 51% durante unos meses después del alunizaje del Apolo 11 en 1969 , y por lo demás había fluctuado entre el 35 y el 45% de apoyo. [388] [389] [390]
  • A pesar de popularizar la frase " beber el Kool-Aid ", [391] Kool-Aid no se utilizó para la mezcla de cianuro de potasio y ponche de frutas ingerida como parte de la masacre de Jonestown . [392] Se utilizó un producto similar, Flavor-Aid . [393] [394]

Ciencia, tecnología y matemáticas

Astronomía y vuelos espaciales

El lado oscuro de la Luna , fotografiado por el Apolo 16 en 1972, claramente iluminado por el Sol. Está mucho más plagado de cráteres que el lado visible de la Luna .
  • El "lado oscuro de la Luna" recibe aproximadamente la misma cantidad de luz del Sol que el lado cercano de la Luna . Describir el lado lejano de la Luna como "oscuro" no significa que nunca reciba luz, sino que nunca había sido visto hasta que los humanos enviaron naves espaciales alrededor de la Luna, ya que el mismo lado de la Luna siempre mira hacia la Tierra debido al bloqueo de mareas . [402]
  • Los agujeros negros tienen los mismos efectos gravitacionales que cualquier otro objeto de igual masa que ocupe su lugar. Atraerán hacia ellos objetos cercanos, como cualquier otro cuerpo celeste, excepto a distancias muy cercanas al agujero negro, comparables a su radio de Schwarzschild . [403] Si, por ejemplo, el Sol fuera reemplazado por un agujero negro de igual masa, las órbitas de los planetas no se verían afectadas en esencia. Un agujero negro puede atraer una cantidad sustancial de materia circundante, pero solo si la estrella a partir de la cual se formó ya lo estuviera haciendo. [404]
El ecuador de la Tierra no se alinea con el plano de la órbita de la Tierra , lo que significa que durante la mitad del año el hemisferio norte está inclinado más hacia el Sol y durante la otra mitad del año el hemisferio norte está inclinado más lejos del Sol. Esta es la causa dominante de la variación estacional de la temperatura, no la distancia de la Tierra al Sol en su órbita .
Imagen satelital de una sección de la Gran Muralla China , que se extiende en diagonal desde la esquina inferior izquierda hasta la esquina superior derecha (no debe confundirse con el río mucho más prominente que se extiende desde la esquina superior izquierda hasta la esquina inferior derecha). La región fotografiada tiene una superficie de 12 por 12 kilómetros (7,5 mi × 7,5 mi).

Biología

Mamíferos

  • Los elefantes viejos que están a punto de morir no abandonan su manada para ir a morir a un « cementerio de elefantes ». [423]
El color de una capa roja no enfurece a un toro.
  • Los toros no se enfurecen con el color rojo, usado en los capotes por los toreros profesionales . El ganado es dicrómata , por lo que el rojo no destaca como un color brillante. No es el color del capote, sino la amenaza percibida por el torero lo que lo incita a embestir. [424]
  • Los rasgos de personalidad y comportamiento de los gatos domésticos no se pueden predecir a partir del color de su pelaje, sino que dependen de una compleja interacción entre factores genéticos y ambientales. [425]
  • Los lemmings no se lanzan en masa desde acantilados suicidas cuando migran. Las escenas de suicidios de lemmings en el documental de Disney de 1958 White Wilderness , que popularizó esta idea, fueron completamente inventadas. Los lemmings de la película fueron comprados a niños inuit , transportados al lugar de rodaje en Canadá y empujados repetidamente desde un acantilado cercano por los cineastas para crear la ilusión de un suicidio en masa. [426] [427] La ​​idea errónea en sí es mucho más antigua, se remonta al menos a fines del siglo XIX, aunque sus orígenes exactos son inciertos. [428] [426]
  • Los perros no envejecen sistemáticamente siete veces más rápido que los humanos. El envejecimiento en los perros varía ampliamente según la raza; ciertas razas, como las razas de perros gigantes y los bulldogs ingleses , tienen una esperanza de vida mucho más corta que el promedio. [429] La mayoría de los perros alcanzan la adolescencia al año de edad; las razas más pequeñas y medianas comienzan a envejecer más lentamente en la edad adulta. [430]
  • Las fases de la Luna no tienen efecto sobre las vocalizaciones de los lobos , y los lobos no aúllan a la Luna. [431] Los lobos aúllan para reunir a la manada generalmente antes y después de las cacerías, para transmitir una alarma particularmente en el sitio de una guarida, para localizarse unos a otros durante una tormenta, mientras cruzan un territorio desconocido y para comunicarse a grandes distancias. [432]
  • No existe un " alfa " en una manada de lobos. Un estudio temprano que acuñó el término "lobo alfa" solo había observado lobos adultos no emparentados que vivían en cautiverio. En la naturaleza, las manadas de lobos funcionan como familias: los padres están a cargo hasta que los jóvenes crecen y forman sus propias familias, y los lobos más jóvenes no derrocan a un "alfa" para convertirse en el nuevo líder. [433] [434]
  • Los murciélagos no son ciegos . Mientras que alrededor del 70% de las especies de murciélagos, principalmente de la familia de los micromurciélagos , utilizan la ecolocalización para orientarse, todas las especies de murciélagos tienen ojos y son capaces de ver. Además, casi todos los murciélagos de la familia de los megamurciélagos o murciélagos frugívoros no pueden ecolocalizar y tienen una excelente visión nocturna. [435]
  • El jugo y la salsa de tomate no son eficaces para neutralizar el olor de un zorrillo. [436] Los tratamientos eficaces para el olor de un zorrillo implican compuestos artificiales en lugar de remedios caseros. [437]
  • Los puercoespines no disparan sus púas . Pueden desprenderse y retroceder deliberadamente hacia sus atacantes para empalarlos, pero sus púas no sobresalen. [438] [439] [440]
  • Los ratones no tienen un apetito especial por el queso y lo comen sólo a falta de mejores opciones; en realidad, prefieren los alimentos dulces y azucarados. El mito puede haber surgido del hecho de que antes de la llegada de la refrigeración, el queso se solía almacenar al aire libre y, por lo tanto, era un alimento al que los ratones podían acceder fácilmente. [441]
  • El hipopótamo no produce leche rosada ni suda sangre. Las secreciones de la piel del hipopótamo son rojas debido a la presencia de ácido hiposudórico , un pigmento rojo que actúa como un protector solar natural, y no es sudor ni sangre. No afecta el color de su leche, que es blanca o beige. [442]

Pájaros

  • Un ser humano que toca o manipula huevos o crías de pájaros no hará que los pájaros adultos los abandonen. [445] Lo mismo suele ser cierto para otros animales cuyas crías son tocadas por humanos, con la posible excepción de los conejos (que a veces abandonan su nido después de un evento que perciben como traumatizante). [446]
  • Comer arroz, levadura o Alka-Seltzer no hace que las aves exploten y rara vez es fatal. Las aves pueden flatular y regurgitar para expulsar gases, y algunas aves incluso incluyen arroz silvestre como parte de su dieta. [447] [448] La idea errónea a menudo ha llevado a las bodas a usar mijo , confeti u otros materiales para rociar a los recién casados ​​​​al salir de la ceremonia, en lugar de lanzar arroz como es tradicional en algunos lugares. [447] [449] [450]
  • El grito audaz y potente que se asocia comúnmente con el águila calva en la cultura popular es en realidad el de un halcón de cola roja. Las vocalizaciones del águila calva son mucho más suaves y chirriantes, y se parecen mucho más a los llamados de las gaviotas. [451] [452]
  • Los avestruces no esconden la cabeza en la arena para esconderse de sus enemigos o para dormir. [453] Los orígenes de esta idea errónea son inciertos, pero probablemente fue popularizada por Plinio el Viejo (23-79 d. C.), quien escribió que los avestruces "imaginan, cuando han metido la cabeza y el cuello en un arbusto, que todo su cuerpo está oculto". [454]
  • El graznido de un pato en realidad hace eco , [455] aunque el eco puede ser difícil de escuchar para los humanos en algunas circunstancias. [456] A pesar de esto, un programa de televisión británico que recopila datos interesantes ha recibido el nombre de Duck Quacks Don't Echo (Los graznidos de los patos no hacen eco) .
  • En 1890, Eugene Schieffelin liberó 60 estorninos comunes en el Central Park de Nueva York , pero no hay pruebas de que intentara introducir en Norteamérica todas las especies de aves mencionadas en las obras de William Shakespeare . Esta afirmación se remonta a un ensayo de 1948 del naturalista Edwin Way Teale , cuyas notas parecen indicar que se trataba de una especulación. [457] [458]

Otros vertebrados

  • Contrariamente a la historia alegórica sobre la rana hirviendo , las ranas mueren inmediatamente cuando son arrojadas al agua hirviendo, en lugar de saltar fuera; además, las ranas intentarán escapar del agua fría que se calienta lentamente más allá de su máximo térmico crítico . [459]
  • La memoria de los peces de colores es mucho más larga que unos pocos segundos: puede durar hasta varios meses. [460] [461]
  • Los tiburones pueden contraer cáncer . La idea errónea de que los tiburones no contraen cáncer se difundió en 1992 con el libro Sharks Don't Get Cancer (Los tiburones no contraen cáncer) , que se utilizó para vender extractos de cartílago de tiburón como tratamientos para la prevención del cáncer. Existen informes de carcinomas en tiburones, y los datos actuales no respaldan ninguna conclusión sobre la incidencia de tumores en tiburones. [462]
  • Los grandes tiburones blancos no confunden a los buceadores humanos con focas u otros pinnípedos . Cuando atacan a los pinnípedos, el tiburón sale rápidamente a la superficie y ataca violentamente. En cambio, los ataques a los humanos son más lentos y menos violentos: el tiburón carga a un ritmo normal, muerde y se aleja nadando. Los grandes tiburones blancos tienen una vista eficiente y una visión de los colores ; la mordedura no es depredadora, sino más bien para identificar un objeto desconocido. [463]
  • Las mandíbulas de las serpientes no pueden desencajarse . El extremo posterior de los huesos de la mandíbula inferior contiene un hueso cuadrado, lo que permite la extensión de la mandíbula. Las puntas anteriores de los huesos de la mandíbula inferior están unidas por un ligamento flexible que les permite curvarse hacia afuera, lo que aumenta la abertura de la boca. [464] [465]
  • La rana arbórea del Pacífico y la rana coral de Baja California son algunas de las únicas especies de ranas que emiten un sonido llamado "crobbit". La idea errónea de que todas las ranas, o al menos todas las que se encuentran en América del Norte, emiten este sonido proviene de su amplio uso en las películas de Hollywood. [466] [467]
  • No hay pruebas creíbles de que el candirú , un bagre parásito sudamericano, pueda nadar hasta la uretra humana si uno orina en el agua en la que vive. El único caso documentado de un incidente de este tipo, escrito en 1997, ha sido duramente criticado en la revisión por pares, y este fenómeno ahora se considera en gran medida un mito. [468]
  • Los pacús , peces sudamericanos emparentados con las pirañas , no atacan ni se alimentan de testículos humanos. Este mito se originó a partir de una broma malinterpretada en un informe de 2013 sobre un pacú hallado en Öresund , el estrecho entre Suecia y Dinamarca, que afirmaba que el pez comía "nueces". [469] [470]
  • Las pirañas no solo comen carne, sino que son omnívoras y nadan en bancos solo para defenderse de los depredadores y no para atacar. Muy rara vez atacan a los humanos, solo cuando están estresadas y se sienten amenazadas, e incluso entonces, las mordeduras generalmente solo ocurren en manos y pies. [471]
  • La piel de un camaleón no está adaptada únicamente para propósitos de camuflaje , [472] ni tampoco puede un camaleón cambiar el color de su piel para que coincida con cualquier fondo. [473] Los camaleones generalmente cambian de color para la señalización social, en función de su estado de ánimo, y para regular el calor. [473] [474] El uso en la señalización social puede ser mostrar colores brillantes solo por breves períodos de tiempo para evitar una mayor visibilidad para los depredadores. [472]

Invertebrados

  • No todas las lombrices de tierra se convierten en dos lombrices cuando se las corta por la mitad. Solo un número limitado de especies de lombrices de tierra [475] son ​​capaces de regeneración anterior .
  • Las moscas domésticas tienen una vida útil promedio de 20 a 30 días , no de 24 horas . [476] Sin embargo, los miembros de una especie de efímera tienen una vida útil adulta de tan solo 5 minutos. [477]
  • La araña de patas largas ( Pholcidae ) no es la araña más venenosa del mundo. Sus colmillos son capaces de perforar la piel humana, pero la pequeña cantidad de veneno que llevan solo causa una leve sensación de ardor durante unos segundos. [478] Otras especies como los opiliones y las moscas grulla también son llamadas arañas de patas largas , y comparten la idea errónea de ser altamente venenosas pero incapaces de perforar la piel de los humanos. [479] [480]
  • Las personas no tragan grandes cantidades de arañas durante el sueño. Una persona dormida emite ruidos que advierten a las arañas del peligro. [481] [482] La mayoría de las personas también se despiertan del sueño cuando tienen una araña en la cara. [483]
Una mantis china hembra copula con su pareja y la canibaliza simultáneamente ; esto no ocurre todas las veces que las mantis se aparean.
Bombus pratorum sobre una inflorescencia de Echinacea ; un error muy extendido sostiene que los abejorros deberían ser incapaces de volar .
  • No es cierto que la teoría aerodinámica prediga que los abejorros no deberían poder volar ; la física del vuelo de los insectos se entiende bastante bien. La idea errónea parece provenir de un cálculo basado en un avión de ala fija mencionado en un libro de 1934, y se popularizó aún más en la película Bee Movie de 2007. [485] [486] [487]
  • Si bien las abejas europeas son fundamentales para la polinización de muchas especies de plantas, no son esenciales para la producción de alimentos para los seres humanos, a pesar de las afirmaciones de que sin su polinización , la humanidad moriría de hambre o se extinguiría "en cuatro años". [488] [489] De hecho, los cultivos alimentarios básicos más esenciales del planeta, como el trigo, el maíz, el arroz, la soja y el sorgo [490] [491] son ​​polinizados por el viento o se autopolinizan, y solo un poco más del 10% de la dieta humana total de cultivos vegetales depende de la polinización por insectos. [490]
  • Las abejas no siempre mueren si utilizan su aguijón. Esto sólo ocurre en una pequeña minoría de especies, entre las que se encuentra la abeja melífera, cuando pican a mamíferos, ya que tienen la piel gruesa y pueden sobrevivir cuando pican a otros insectos. [492] [493] [494]
  • No se sabe que las tijeretas se metan intencionadamente en los canales auditivos externos, aunque existen informes anecdóticos de que se han encontrado tijeretas en el oído. [495] El nombre puede ser una referencia a la apariencia de sus alas traseras, que son únicas y distintivas entre los insectos, y se parecen a una oreja humana cuando están desplegadas. [496] [497]
  • Las garrapatas no saltan ni caen de los árboles sobre sus huéspedes, sino que acechan para agarrar y trepar a cualquier huésped que pase por allí o para rastrearlo mediante, por ejemplo, estímulos olfativos , el calor corporal del huésped o el dióxido de carbono presente en su aliento. [498] [499]
  • Aunque a menudo se las llama "hormigas blancas", [500] las termitas no son hormigas ni están estrechamente relacionadas con ellas. Las termitas son, en realidad, cucarachas de alto grado . [501] [502]
  • Las cucarachas no serían los únicos organismos capaces de sobrevivir en un ambiente contaminado con residuos nucleares. Si bien las cucarachas tienen una resistencia a la radiación mucho mayor que los vertebrados, no son inmunes al envenenamiento por radiación ni son excepcionalmente resistentes a la radiación en comparación con otros insectos. [503] [504]
  • La aplicación de orina sobre las picaduras de medusas como terapia de orina no alivia el dolor; de hecho, puede empeorarlo. [505] [506] [507] El mejor tratamiento inmediato para las picaduras de medusas es enjuagarlas con agua salada. [505] [506] [507]

Plantas

  • Las plantas carnívoras pueden sobrevivir sin alimento. Sin embargo, la captura de insectos favorece su crecimiento. [508]
  • Las flores de Pascua no son muy tóxicas para los humanos ni para los gatos. Si bien es cierto que son levemente irritantes para la piel o el estómago [509] y, en ocasiones, pueden causar diarrea y vómitos si se ingieren, rara vez causan problemas médicos graves [510] .
Girasoles con el sol claramente visible detrás de ellos.
  • Los girasoles no siempre apuntan hacia el sol. Los girasoles en flor miran hacia una dirección fija (a menudo hacia el este) durante todo el día, pero no necesariamente hacia el sol. [511] Sin embargo, en una etapa de desarrollo anterior, antes de la aparición de las cabezas florales, los brotes inmaduros siguen al sol (un fenómeno llamado heliotropismo ). Las flores maduras miran hacia el este. [512]
  • Los hongos, los mohos y otros hongos no son plantas, a pesar de las similitudes en su morfología y estilo de vida . La clasificación histórica de los hongos como plantas ha quedado obsoleta y, aunque todavía se incluyen comúnmente en los programas de estudio y libros de texto de botánica, la evidencia molecular moderna muestra que los hongos están más estrechamente relacionados con los animales que con las plantas . [513] [514]

Evolución y paleontología

  • La palabra teoría en "la teoría de la evolución" no implica duda científica sobre su validez; los conceptos de teoría e hipótesis tienen significados específicos en un contexto científico. Mientras que teoría en el uso coloquial puede denotar una corazonada o conjetura, una teoría científica es un conjunto de principios que explica un fenómeno observable en términos naturales. [515] [516] "El hecho científico y la teoría no son categóricamente separables", [517] y la evolución es una teoría en el mismo sentido que la teoría de los gérmenes o la teoría de la gravitación . [518]
  • La teoría de la evolución no intenta explicar el origen de la vida [519] ni el origen y desarrollo del universo. La teoría de la evolución trata principalmente de los cambios en las generaciones sucesivas a lo largo del tiempo después de que la vida ya se haya originado. [520] El modelo científico que se ocupa del origen de los primeros organismos a partir de moléculas orgánicas o inorgánicas se conoce como abiogénesis , y la teoría predominante para explicar el desarrollo temprano del universo es el modelo del Big Bang .
  • La evolución no es una progresión de organismos inferiores a superiores , y tampoco necesariamente resulta en un aumento de la complejidad . La evolución a través de la selección natural solo hace que los organismos se vuelvan más aptos para su entorno. [521] Una población puede evolucionar para volverse más simple o tener un genoma más pequeño , [522] y los rasgos genéticos ancestrales atávicos pueden reaparecer después de haberse perdido a través del cambio evolutivo en generaciones anteriores. [523] La devolución biológica o desevolución es un nombre inapropiado , no solo porque implica que los organismos solo pueden evolucionar hacia atrás o hacia adelante, sino también porque implica que la evolución puede hacer que los organismos evolucionen en la dirección "incorrecta". [524] [525]
  • La frase " supervivencia del más apto " se refiere a la aptitud biológica , no a la aptitud física . La aptitud biológica es la medida cuantitativa del éxito reproductivo individual , por ejemplo, la tendencia de los linajes que contienen individuos que producen más descendencia en un entorno particular a persistir y prosperar en ese entorno. Además, aunque los conceptos relacionados de "supervivencia del más apto" y " selección natural " a menudo se usan indistintamente, no son lo mismo: la selección natural no es la única forma de selección que determina la aptitud biológica (véase selección sexual , selección de fecundidad , selección de viabilidad y selección artificial ). [526] [527] [528]
  • La evolución no "planea" mejorar la aptitud de un organismo para sobrevivir. [529] [530] Este concepto erróneo se fomenta ya que es una forma abreviada común para los biólogos hablar de un propósito como una forma concisa de expresión (a veces llamada la "metáfora del propósito"); [531] es menos engorroso decir "Los dinosaurios pueden haber desarrollado plumas para el cortejo" que "Las plumas pueden haber sido seleccionadas cuando surgieron, ya que dieron a los dinosaurios una ventaja selectiva durante el cortejo sobre sus rivales sin plumas". [532] Sin embargo, esto puede dar lugar a que muchos estudiantes expliquen la evolución como un proceso intencional y con un propósito. [533]
  • Las mutaciones no son completamente aleatorias ni ocurren con la misma frecuencia en todas partes del genoma. Ciertas regiones del genoma de un organismo tendrán mayor o menor probabilidad de sufrir mutaciones dependiendo de la presencia de mecanismos de reparación del ADN y otros sesgos de mutación . Por ejemplo, en un estudio sobre Arabidopsis thaliana , se encontró que regiones biológicamente importantes del genoma de la planta estaban protegidas de las mutaciones y que las mutaciones beneficiosas eran más probables, es decir, la mutación era "no aleatoria de una manera que beneficia a la planta". [534] [535] [536]
  • Aunque la palabra dinosaurio puede usarse de manera peyorativa para describir algo que se está volviendo obsoleto debido a su incapacidad para adaptarse a condiciones cambiantes, los dinosaurios no aviares no se extinguieron por su incapacidad para adaptarse a cambios ambientales, como se teorizó inicialmente . Además, no todos los dinosaurios están extintos (ver más abajo). [537] [538] [539] [540]
Pelagornis . Los dinosaurios no aviares se extinguieron en la extinción masiva del Cretácico-Paleógeno , pero algunos dinosaurios terópodos sobreviven hasta nuestros días.
A pesar de las representaciones culturales , los plesiosaurios no eran dinosaurios , ni tampoco los plesiosaurios ni los dinosaurios no aviares coexistieron con los humanos .
Dimetrodon , el icónico sinápsido con dorso en forma de vela , no era un dinosaurio ni vivió al mismo tiempo que los dinosaurios.
Aegyptopithecus , un mono prehistórico anterior a la división entre simios y otros monos del Viejo Mundo durante el curso de la evolución humana . Aegyptopithecus también es posterior a la división de los monos del Viejo y Nuevo Mundo , lo que lo hace más estrechamente relacionado con los humanos que con todos los monos del Nuevo Mundo. [558]

Química y ciencia de los materiales

  • La sal del Himalaya no tiene niveles más bajos de sodio que la sal de mesa convencional. [572]
  • El vidrio no fluye a temperatura ambiente como un líquido de alta viscosidad . [573] Aunque el vidrio comparte algunas propiedades moleculares con los líquidos , es un sólido a temperatura ambiente y solo comienza a fluir a cientos de grados por encima de la temperatura ambiente . [574] [575] El vidrio viejo que es más grueso en la parte inferior que en la parte superior proviene del proceso de producción, no de un flujo lento; [574] [575] no se observa tal distorsión en otros objetos de vidrio de edad similar o incluso mayor. [574] [575] [576]
  • Los diamantes no se forman a partir de carbón altamente comprimido. Casi todos los diamantes extraídos comercialmente se formaron en condiciones de calor y presión extremos a unos 150 kilómetros (93 mi) por debajo de la superficie de la Tierra. El carbón se forma a partir de plantas prehistóricas enterradas mucho más cerca de la superficie y es poco probable que migre por debajo de los 3,2 kilómetros (2,0 mi) a través de procesos geológicos. La mayoría de los diamantes que se han datado son más antiguos que las primeras plantas terrestres y, por lo tanto, son más antiguos que el carbón. Los diamantes utilizados en procesos industriales son casi siempre diamantes creados en laboratorio. [577]
  • Ni el papel de aluminio ni las latas de hojalata utilizan todavía estaño como material principal. El papel de aluminio ha sustituido al papel de hojalata en casi todos los usos desde el siglo XX; las latas de hojalata utilizan ahora principalmente acero o aluminio como metal principal. [578] [579] [580]
  • No existe ningún compuesto especial añadido al agua de las piscinas que revele la presencia de orina y atrape a quienes orinan en la piscina. [581]
  • Aunque el núcleo de un lápiz de madera se conoce comúnmente como "mina", los lápices de madera no contienen el elemento químico plomo, ni lo han contenido nunca; "mina negra" era anteriormente un nombre para el grafito, que se usa comúnmente para las minas de los lápices. [582]

La informática y la Internet

Ciencias económicas

Población total que vive en extrema pobreza, por región del mundo, 1987 a 2015 [592]
  • El número total de personas que viven en la pobreza extrema absoluta a nivel mundial, según la métrica ampliamente utilizada de $1,00/día (en dólares estadounidenses de 1990), ha disminuido en las últimas décadas, pero la mayoría de las personas encuestadas en varios países piensan incorrectamente que ha aumentado o se ha mantenido igual. [593] Sin embargo, esto depende del cálculo de la línea de pobreza utilizado. Por ejemplo, si la métrica utilizada es en cambio una que prioriza el cumplimiento de una expectativa de vida estándar que ya no aumenta significativamente con el consumo adicional permitido por los ingresos, el número de personas en situación de pobreza ha aumentado en casi 1.000 millones. [594] [595]
  • El crecimiento de la población humana está disminuyendo y se espera que la población mundial alcance su punto máximo y luego comience a disminuir durante el siglo XXI. Se espera que las mejoras en la productividad y la tecnología agrícolas puedan satisfacer la mayor demanda prevista de recursos, lo que hace improbable un escenario de superpoblación humana mundial . [596] [597] [598]
  • Para cualquier conjunto de producción dado , no hay una cantidad fija de trabajo invertido (una " cantidad de trabajo ") para producir ese resultado. Esta falacia se observa comúnmente en los movimientos ludistas y posteriores relacionados como un argumento ya sea para afirmar que la automatización causa desempleo estructural permanente o que la regulación que limita el trabajo puede reducir el desempleo. De hecho, los cambios en la asignación de capital, la eficiencia y las economías de aprendizaje pueden cambiar la cantidad de trabajo invertido para un conjunto dado de producción. [599]
  • En Estados Unidos, el ingreso no es un factor directo para determinar la calificación crediticia . Más bien, la calificación crediticia se ve afectada por la cantidad de crédito disponible no utilizado, que a su vez se ve afectada por el ingreso. [600] El ingreso también se tiene en cuenta al evaluar la solvencia crediticia de manera más general.
  • El público estadounidense sobreestima enormemente la cantidad gastada en ayuda exterior . [601]
  • En los EE.UU., un aumento de los ingresos brutos nunca reducirá las ganancias después de impuestos de un contribuyente ( ingreso neto ) al colocarlo en un tramo impositivo más alto . Los tramos impositivos especifican tasas impositivas marginales : solo los ingresos obtenidos en el tramo impositivo más alto se gravan a la tasa más alta. [602] Sin embargo, un aumento de los ingresos brutos puede reducir los ingresos netos en un acantilado de bienestar , cuando los beneficios se retiran al pasar un cierto umbral de ingresos. [603] La prevalencia de la idea errónea varía según la afiliación a un partido político. [604]
  • La construcción de nuevas viviendas reduce el costo del alquiler y el precio de las viviendas, tanto en el vecindario inmediato como en la ciudad en su conjunto. En la economía inmobiliaria , el "escepticismo sobre la oferta" lleva a muchos estadounidenses a malinterpretar el efecto del aumento de la oferta de viviendas sobre los costos de la vivienda. La idea errónea es exclusiva del mercado inmobiliario. [605] [606]

Ciencias de la tierra y del medio ambiente

Reconstrucción de la temperatura superficial global durante los últimos 2000 años utilizando datos indirectos de anillos de árboles, corales y núcleos de hielo en azul. [607] Los datos observados directamente están en rojo. [608]
El agotamiento de la capa de ozono no es una causa del calentamiento global .
Torres de refrigeración de las centrales eléctricas de Cottam, en Inglaterra , que ya no funcionan . Los gases que expulsan las torres son vapores de agua inofensivos procedentes del proceso de refrigeración.
  • Las torres de refrigeración de las centrales eléctricas y otras instalaciones no emiten humo ni gases nocivos, emiten vapor de agua y no contribuyen al cambio climático. [622] [623]
  • La energía nuclear es una de las fuentes de energía más seguras y produce órdenes de magnitud inferiores de muertes por unidad de energía producida que las fuentes de energía convencionales. Muy pocas personas mueren o resultan heridas debido a la energía nuclear cada año. [624] [625] [626] [627] (Véase también: Radiofobia )
  • Earthquake strength (or magnitude) is not commonly measured using the Richter scale. Although the Richter scale was used historically to measure earthquake magnitude (although, notably, not earthquake damage), it was found in the 1970s that it does not reliably represent the magnitude of large earthquakes. It has therefore been largely replaced by the moment magnitude scale,[628] although very small earthquakes are still sometimes measured using the Richter scale.[629] Nevertheless, earthquake magnitude is still widely misattributed to the Richter scale.[630][631][632]
    Death rates from air pollution and accidents related to energy production, measured in deaths in the past per terawatt hours (TWh) (left). Carbon emissions measured in tons per gigawatt hour (GWh) on the right.
  • Lightning can, and often does, strike the same place twice. Lightning in a thunderstorm is more likely to strike objects and spots that are more prominent or conductive. For instance, lightning strikes the Empire State Building in New York City on average 23 times per year.[633]
  • Heat lightning does not exist as a distinct phenomenon. What is mistaken for "heat lightning" is usually ordinary lightning from storms too distant to hear the associated thunder.[634]
  • The Yellowstone Caldera is not overdue for a supervolcano eruption.[635] There is also no evidence that it will erupt in the near future. In fact, data indicates there will not be an eruption in the coming centuries.[636] The most likely eruption would be hydrothermal rather than volcanic. A caldera-forming volcanic eruption (and subsequent impacts on global weather patterns and agricultural production) is the least likely scenario and has an extremely low likelihood.[637][638]
  • The Earth's interior is not molten rock. This misconception may originate from a misunderstanding based on the fact that the Earth's mantle convects, and the incorrect assumption that only liquids and gases can convect. In fact, a solid with a large Rayleigh number can also convect, given enough time, which is what occurs in the solid mantle due to the very large thermal gradient across it.[639][640] There are small pockets of molten rock in the upper mantle, but these make up a tiny fraction of the mantle's volume.[641] The Earth's outer core is liquid, but it is liquid metal, not rock.[642]
  • The Amazon rainforest does not provide 20% of Earth's oxygen. This is a misinterpretation of a 2010 study which found that approximately 34% of photosynthesis by terrestrial plants occurs in tropical rainforests (so the Amazon rainforest would account for approximately half of this). Due to respiration by the resident organisms, all ecosystems (including the Amazon rainforest) have a net output of oxygen of approximately zero. The oxygen currently present in the atmosphere was accumulated over billions of years.[643]

Geography

Map of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Agulhas, the southernmost point of Africa
  • The Cape of Good Hope is not the southern tip of Africa, which is actually Cape Agulhas, about 150 kilometres (90 mi) to the east-southeast.[644]
  • The majority of the Sahara consists of rocks, rather than sand.[645][494]
  • Rivers do not predominantly flow from north to south. Rivers flow downhill in all compass directions, often changing direction along their course.[646][647] Indeed, many major rivers flow northward, including the Nile, the Yenisey, the Ob, the Rhine, the Lena, and the Orinoco.[647][648]

Human body and health

A widely held misconception in South Korea is that leaving electric fans on while asleep can be fatal.
  • Eating burnt food – which contains acrylamide – does not increase the risk of getting cancer.[649]
  • It is not just heavy metals which can be toxic; other metals (for example beryllium and lithium) can be toxic too.[650]
  • Sleeping in a closed room with an electric fan running does not result in "fan death", as is widely believed in South Korea among older people.[651][652] As of 2019 this belief was in decline.[653]
  • Nocturia (waking up at night to urinate) is equally prevalent in women and men,[654] although it is more common among both men and women over 50.[655]
  • Waking up a sleepwalker does not harm them. Sleepwalkers may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, but the health risks associated with sleepwalking are from injury or insomnia, not from being awakened.[656][medical citation needed]
  • Seizures cannot cause a person to swallow their own tongue,[657][658] and it is dangerous to attempt to place a foreign object into a convulsing person's mouth. Instead it is recommended to gently lay a convulsing person on their side to minimize the risk of asphyxiation.[659]
  • Drowning is often inconspicuous to onlookers.[660] In most cases, the instinctive drowning response prevents the victim from waving or yelling (known as "aquatic distress"),[660] which are therefore not dependable signs of trouble; indeed, most drowning victims undergoing the response do not show prior evidence of distress.[661]
  • Herbal medicines are not necessarily safe and side-effect free; such medicines can have adverse effects.[662]
  • Human blood in veins is not actually blue. Blood is red due to the presence of hemoglobin; deoxygenated blood (in veins) has a deep red color, and oxygenated blood (in arteries) has a light cherry-red color. Veins below the skin can appear blue or green due to subsurface scattering of light through the skin, and aspects of human color perception. Many medical diagrams also use blue to show veins, and red to show arteries, which contributes to this misconception.[663]
  • Exposure to a vacuum, or experiencing all but the most extreme uncontrolled decompression, does not cause the body to explode or internal fluids to boil (although the fluids in the mouth and lungs will indeed boil at altitudes above the Armstrong limit); rather, it will lead to a loss of consciousness once the body has depleted the supply of oxygen in the blood, followed by death from hypoxia within minutes.[664]
  • Exercise-induced delayed onset muscle soreness is not caused by lactic acid build-up. Muscular lactic acid levels return to normal levels within an hour after exercise; delayed onset muscle soreness is thought to be due to microtrauma from unaccustomed or strenuous exercise.[665]
  • Stretching before or after exercise does not reduce delayed onset muscle soreness.[666]
  • Urine is not sterile, not even in the bladder.[667] This misconception may derive from urine bacterial screening tests, which return "negative" when bacteria levels are low, but nonzero.[667]
  • Sudden immersion into freezing water does not typically cause death by hypothermia, but rather from the cold shock response, which can cause cardiac arrest, heart attack, or hyperventilation leading to drowning.[668]
  • Cremated remains are not ashes in the usual sense. After the incineration is completed, the dry bone fragments are swept out of the retort and pulverized by a machine called a cremulator (essentially a high-capacity, high-speed blender) to process them into "ashes" or "cremated remains".[669]
  • The lung's alveoli are not tiny balloons that expand and contract under positive pressure following the Young–Laplace equation, as is taught in some physiology and medical textbooks. The tissue structure is more like a sponge with polygonal spaces that unfold and fold under negative pressure from the chest wall.[670]
  • Half of body heat is not lost through the head, and covering the head is no more effective at preventing heat loss than covering any other portion of the body. Heat is lost from the body in proportion to the amount of exposed skin.[671][672] The head accounts for around 7–9% of the body's surface, and studies have shown that having one's head submerged in cold water only causes a person to lose 10% more heat overall.[673] This myth likely comes from a flawed United States military experiment in 1950, involving a prototype Arctic survival suit where the head was one of the few body parts left exposed.[674] The misconception was further perpetuated by a 1970 military field manual that claimed "40–45%" of heat is lost through the head, based on the 1950 study.[672][674][medical citation needed]
  • Adrenochrome is not harvested from living people and has no use as a recreational drug. Hunter S. Thompson conceived a fictional drug of the same name in his book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, apparently as a metaphor and unaware that a real substance by that name existed; it is Thompson's fictional adrenochrome, and not the real chemical compound, that is the source of numerous conspiracy theories revolving around human trafficking to harvest the fictional drug.[675][676]
  • Men and women have the same number of ribs: 24, or 12 pairs. The erroneous idea that women have one more rib than men may stem from the biblical creation story of Adam and Eve.[677]
  • The use of cotton swabs (aka cotton buds or Q-Tips) in the ear canal has no associated medical benefits and poses definite medical risks.[678]
  • The idea that a precise number of stages of grief exist is not supported in peer-reviewed research or objective clinical observation, let alone the five stages of grief model.[679]
  • 98.6 °F (37.0 °C) is not the normal or average temperature of the human body. That figure comes from an 1860 study,[680] but modern research shows that the average internal temperature is 36.4 °C (97.5 °F), with small fluctuations.[681][682][683]
  • The cells in the human body are not outnumbered 10 to 1 by microorganisms. The 10 to 1 ratio was an estimate made in 1972; current estimates put the ratio at either 3 to 1 or 1.3 to 1.[684]

Disease and preventive healthcare

  • Tuberculosis is not purely a disease of the lungs that has symptoms of coughing. It may instead infect a wide range of other organs in the body.[685]
  • Cancer cannot be treated by restricting food intake and so supposedly "starving" tumors. Rather, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining a healthy diet.[686]
  • The common cold and the common flu are caused by viruses, not exposure to cold temperatures. However, low temperatures may somewhat weaken the immune system, and someone already infected with a cold or influenza virus but showing no symptoms can become symptomatic after they are exposed to low temperatures.[687][688] Viruses are more likely to spread during the winter for a variety of reasons such as dry air, less air circulation in homes, people spending more time indoors, and lower vitamin D levels in humans.[689]
  • Antibiotics will not cure a cold; they treat bacterial diseases and are ineffectual against viruses.[690][691] However, they are sometimes prescribed to prevent or treat secondary infections.[692]
  • There is little to no evidence that any illnesses are curable through essential oils or aromatherapy,[693] and fish oil has not been shown to cure dementia.[694]
  • In those with the common cold, the color of the sputum or nasal secretion may vary from clear to yellow to green and does not indicate the class of agent causing the infection.[695] The color of the sputum is determined by immune cells fighting an infection in the nasal area.[696]
  • Vitamin C does not prevent or treat the common cold, although it may have a protective effect during intense cold-weather exercise. If taken daily, it may slightly reduce the duration and severity of colds, but it has no effect if taken after the cold starts.[697]
The bumps on a toad are not warts and cannot cause warts on humans.
  • Humans cannot catch warts from toads or other animals; the bumps on a toad are not warts.[698] Warts on human skin are caused by human papillomavirus, which is only known to affect humans.[699]
  • Cracking one's knuckles does not cause osteoarthritis.[700][701]
  • In people with eczema, bathing does not dry the skin as long as a moisturizer is applied soon after. If moisturizer is not applied after bathing, then the evaporation of water from the skin can result in dryness.[702]
  • There have never been any programs in the US that provide access to dialysis machines in exchange for pull tabs on beverage cans.[703] This rumor has existed since at least the 1970s, and usually cites the National Kidney Foundation as the organization offering the program. The Foundation itself has denied the rumor, noting that dialysis machines are primarily funded by Medicare.[704]
  • High dietary protein intake is not associated with kidney disease in healthy people.[705] While significantly increased protein intake in the short-term is associated with changes in renal function, there is no evidence to suggest this effect persists in the long-term and results in kidney damage or disease.[706]
  • Rhinoceros horn in powdered form is not used as an aphrodisiac in traditional Chinese medicine as Cornu Rhinoceri Asiatici (犀角, xījiǎo, "rhinoceros horn"). It is prescribed for fevers and convulsions,[707] a treatment not supported by evidence-based medicine.
  • Leprosy is not auto-degenerative as commonly supposed, meaning that it will not (on its own) cause body parts to be damaged or fall off.[708] Leprosy causes rashes to form and may degrade cartilage and, if untreated, inflame tissue. In addition, leprosy is only mildly contagious, partly because 95% of those infected with the mycobacteria that causes leprosy do not develop the disease.[709][708] Tzaraath, a Biblical disease that disfigures the skin is often identified as leprosy, and may be the source of many myths about the disease.[710]
  • Rust does not cause tetanus infection. The Clostridium tetani bacterium is generally found in dirty environments. Since the same conditions that harbor tetanus bacteria also promote rusting of metal, many people associate rust with tetanus. C. tetani requires anoxic conditions to reproduce and these are found in the permeable layers of rust that form on oxygen-absorbing, unprotected ironwork.[711]
  • Quarantine has never been a standard procedure for those with severe combined immunodeficiency, despite the condition's popular nickname ("bubble boy syndrome") and its portrayal in films. A bone marrow transplant in the earliest months of life is the standard course of treatment. The exceptional case of David Vetter, who lived much of his life encased in a sterile environment because he would not receive a transplant until age 12, was an inspiration for the "bubble boy" trope.[712]
  • Gunnison, Colorado, did not avoid the 1918 flu pandemic by using protective sequestration. The implementation of protective sequestration did prevent the virus from spreading outside a single household after a single carrier came into the town while it was in effect, but it was not sustainable and had to be lifted in February 1919. A month later, the flu killed five residents and infected dozens of others.[713]
  • Statements in medication package inserts listing the frequency of side effects describe how often the effect occurs after taking a drug, but are not making any assertion that there is a causal connection between taking the drug and the occurrence of the side effect. In other words, what is being reported on is correlation, not necessarily causation.[714]
  • Wounds that are licked by dogs do not heal faster, as is believed by some in France.[715]
  • There is no peer-reviewed scientific evidence that crystal healing has any effect beyond acting as a placebo.[716][717][718]
  • There is a scientific consensus[719][720][721] that currently available food derived from genetically modified crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food.[722]
  • Reading in dim light causes eye strain rather than permanent damage to the eye.[31]
  • Colour blindness cannot be significantly alleviated by glasses or lenses. While there are lenses marketed towards the colourblind, their efficacy is doubted by professionals, and they do not enable wearers to see new colours.[723]

Nutrition, food, and drink

  • Diet has little influence on the body's detoxification, and there is no evidence that detoxification diets rid the body of toxins.[724][725] Toxins are metabolized and removed from the bloodstream by the liver and kidneys, and they are primarily removed from the body in urine and bile (excreted with the feces).[724]
  • Drinking milk or consuming other dairy products does not increase mucus production.[726] As a result, they do not need to be avoided by those with the flu or cold congestion. However, milk and saliva in one's mouth mix to create a thick liquid that can briefly coat the mouth and throat. The sensation that lingers may be mistaken for increased phlegm.[727]
  • Drinking eight glasses (2–3 liters) of water a day is not needed to maintain health.[728] The amount of water needed varies by person, weight, diet, activity level, clothing, and the ambient heat and humidity. Water does not actually need to be drunk in pure form, and can be derived from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables.[728][729]
  • Drinking coffee and other caffeinated beverages does not cause dehydration for regular drinkers, although it can for occasional drinkers.[730][729]
  • Eating disorders do not exclusively affect women: women are merely more likely than men to suffer from eating disorders.[731]
  • Spicy food or coffee do not have a significant effect on the development of peptic ulcers.[732]
  • Sugar does not cause hyperactivity in children.[733] Double-blind trials have shown no difference in behavior between children given sugar-full or sugar-free diets, even in studies specifically looking at children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or those considered sensitive to sugar.[734] A 2019 meta-analysis found no positive effect of sugar consumption on mood but did find an association with lower alertness and increased fatigue within an hour of consumption, known as a sugar crash.[735]
  • Eating nuts, popcorn, or seeds does not increase the risk of diverticulitis.[736] These foods may actually have a protective effect.[737]
  • Eating less than an hour before swimming does not significantly increase the risk of experiencing muscle cramps, and does not increase the risk of drowning. One study shows a correlation between alcohol consumption and drowning, but not between eating and stomach cramps.[738]
  • Vegan and vegetarian diets can provide enough protein for adequate nutrition.[739] In fact, typical protein intakes of ovo-lacto vegetarians meet or exceed requirements.[740] The American Dietetic Association maintains that appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful.[741] However, a vegan diet does require supplementation of vitamin B12,[739] and vitamin B12 deficiency occurs in up to 80% of vegans that do not supplement their diet.[742] Consuming no animal products increases the risk of deficiencies of vitamins B12 and D, calcium, iron, omega-3 fatty acids,[743] and sometimes iodine.[744] Vegans are also at risk of low bone mineral density without supplementation for the aforementioned nutrients.[745]
  • Swallowed chewing gum does not take seven years to digest. Chewing gum is mostly indigestible, and passes through the digestive system at the same rate as other matter.[746]
  • Monosodium glutamate (MSG) might not cause headaches or other symptoms of so-called Chinese restaurant syndrome in the general population. Many studies that found a biological effect were done on rats or other lab animals, or used unusually large doses of MSG, and these can't necessarily be extrapolated to humans. There is also little evidence it impacts body weight.[747]
  • The beta carotene in carrots does not enhance night vision beyond normal levels for people receiving an adequate amount, only in those with a deficiency of vitamin A.[748] The belief that it does may have originated from World War II British disinformation meant to explain the Royal Air Force's improved success in night battles, which was actually due to radar and the use of red lights on instrument panels.[749]
  • Spinach is not a particularly good source of dietary iron. While it does contain more iron than many vegetables such as asparagus, Swiss chard, kale, or arugula, it contains only about one-third to one-fifth of the iron in lima beans, chickpeas, apricots, or wheat germ. Additionally, the non-heme iron found in spinach and other vegetables is not as readily absorbed as the heme iron found in meats and fish.[750][751][752]
  • Most cases of obesity are not related to slower resting metabolism. Resting metabolic rate does not vary much between people. Overweight people tend to underestimate the amount of food they eat, and underweight people tend to overestimate. In fact, overweight people tend to have faster metabolic rates due to the increased energy required by the larger body.[753]
  • Eating normal amounts of soy does not cause hormonal imbalance.[754]
Alcoholic beverages
  • Alcoholic beverages do not make the entire body warmer.[755] Alcoholic drinks create the sensation of warmth because they cause blood vessels to dilate and stimulate nerve endings near the surface of the skin with an influx of warm blood. This can actually result in making the core body temperature lower, as it allows for easier heat exchange with a cold external environment.
  • Alcohol does not necessarily kill brain cells.[756] Alcohol can, however, lead indirectly to the death of brain cells in two ways. First, in chronic, heavy alcohol users whose brains have adapted to the effects of alcohol, abrupt ceasing following heavy use can cause excitotoxicity leading to cellular death in multiple areas of the brain.[757] Second, in alcoholics who get most of their daily calories from alcohol, a deficiency of thiamine can produce Korsakoff's syndrome, which is associated with serious brain damage.[758]
  • The order in which different types of alcoholic beverages are consumed ("Grape or grain but never the twain" and "Beer before liquor never sicker; liquor before beer in the clear") does not affect intoxication or create adverse side effects.[759]
  • Authentic absinthe has no hallucinogenic properties, and is no more dangerous than any other alcoholic beverage of equivalent proof.[760] This misconception stems from late-19th- and early-20th-century distillers who produced cheap knockoff versions of absinthe, which used copper salts to recreate the distinct green color of true absinthe, and some also reportedly adulterated cheap absinthe with poisonous antimony trichloride, reputed to enhance the louche effect.[761]

Sexuality and reproduction

  • Older adults are not necessarily sexually inactive nor have they lost interest in sex; although the frequency of sexual activity tends to decline with age, older adults are still sexually active. One survey in England of people aged 60–69 recorded 86% of men and 60% of women as sexually active.[762]
  • "Double bagging", the practice of using two condoms at once, is not an extra-effective method of birth control; instead such use is more likely to cause condom breakage due to friction between the condoms.[763]
  • It is not possible to get pregnant from semen released in a commercial swimming pool without penetration. The sperm cells would be quickly killed by the chlorinated water and would not survive long enough to reach the vagina.[764]
  • An examination of the hymen is not an accurate or reliable indicator that a woman or girl has had penetrative sex, because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event, and some women are born without one.[765][766][767] Virginity tests, such as the "two-finger" test, are widely considered to be unscientific.[768][769][770]
  • Hand size[771] and foot size[772] do not correlate with human penis size, but finger length ratio may.[773]
  • While pregnancies from sex between first cousins do carry a slightly elevated risk of birth defects, this risk is often exaggerated.[774] The risk is 5–6% (similar to that of a woman in her early 40s giving birth),[774][775] compared with a baseline risk of 3–4%.[775] The effects of inbreeding depression, while still relatively small compared to other factors (and thus difficult to control for in a scientific experiment), become more noticeable if isolated and maintained for several generations.[776]
  • Having sex before a sporting event or contest is not physiologically detrimental to performance.[777] In fact it has been suggested that sex prior to sports activity can elevate male testosterone levels, which could potentially enhance performance for male athletes.[778]
  • There is no definitive proof of the existence of the vaginal G-spot, and the general consensus is that no such spot exists on the female body.[779]
  • Closeted or latent homosexuality is not correlated with internalized homophobia. A 1996 study claiming a connection in men[780] has not been verified by subsequent studies, including a 2013 study that found no correlation.[781]
  • The menstrual cycles of women who live together do not tend to synchronize. A 1971 study made this claim, but subsequent research has not supported it.[782][783]

Skin and hair

  • Water-induced wrinkles are not caused by the skin absorbing water and swelling.[784] They are caused by the autonomic nervous system, which triggers localized vasoconstriction in response to wet skin, yielding a wrinkled appearance.[785]
  • A person's hair and fingernails do not continue to grow after death. Rather, the skin dries and shrinks away from the bases of hairs and nails, giving the appearance of growth.[786]
  • Shaving does not cause terminal hair to grow back thicker or darker. This belief is thought to be due to the fact that hair that has never been cut has a tapered end, so after cutting, the base of the hair is blunt and appears thicker and feels coarser. That short hairs are less flexible than longer hairs contributes to this effect.[787]
  • MC1R, the gene mostly responsible for red hair, is not becoming extinct, nor will the gene for blond hair do so, although both are recessive alleles. Redheads and blonds may become rarer but will not die out unless everyone who carries those alleles dies without passing their hair color genes on to their children.[788]
  • Acne is not caused by a lack of hygiene or eating fatty foods, though certain medication or a carbohydrate-rich diet may worsen it.[789]
  • Dandruff is not caused by poor hygiene, though infrequent hair-washing can make it more obvious. The exact causes of dandruff are uncertain, but they are believed to be mostly genetic and environmental factors.[790]

Inventions

  • James Watt did not invent the steam engine,[791] nor were his ideas on steam engine power inspired by a kettle lid pressured open by steam.[792] Watt improved upon the already commercially successful Newcomen atmospheric engine (invented in 1712) in the 1760s and 1770s, making certain improvements critical to its future usage, particularly the external condenser, increasing its efficiency, and later the mechanism for transforming reciprocating motion into rotary motion; his new steam engine later gained huge fame as a result.[793]
  • Although the guillotine was named after the French physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, he neither invented nor was executed with this device. He died peacefully in his own bed in 1814. Rather, it was Guillotin's speech favouring beheadings over other forms of execution that lead to the device being referred to as "La machine Guillotine" and later simply guillotine.[794]
  • Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet.[795] A forerunner of the modern toilet was invented by the Elizabethan courtier Sir John Harington in the 16th century,[796] and in 1775 the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming developed and patented a design for a toilet with an S-trap and flushing mechanism.[797] Crapper, however, did much to increase the popularity of the flush toilet and introduced several innovations in the late 19th century, holding nine patents, including one for the floating ballcock.[798]
  • Thomas Edison did not invent the light bulb.[799] The team of inventors Edison employed at his laboratories in Menlo Park, New Jersey did, however, develop the first practical light bulb in 1880 (employing a carbonized bamboo filament), shortly prior to Joseph Swan, who invented an even more efficient bulb in 1881 (which used a cellulose filament).
  • Henry Ford did not invent either the automobile or the assembly line. He did improve the assembly line process substantially, sometimes through his own engineering but more often through sponsoring the work of his employees, and he was the main person behind the introduction of the Model T, regarded as the first affordable automobile.[800] Karl Benz (co-founder of Mercedes-Benz) is credited with the invention of the first modern automobile,[801] and the assembly line has existed throughout history.
  • Al Gore never said that he had "invented" the Internet. What Gore actually said was, "During my service in the United States Congress, I took the initiative in creating the Internet", in reference to his political work towards developing the Internet for widespread public use.[802] Gore was the original drafter of the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, which provided significant funding for supercomputing centers,[803] and this in turn led to upgrades of a major part of the already-existing early 1990s Internet backbone, the NSFNet,[804] and development of NCSA Mosaic, the browser that popularized the World Wide Web.[803] (See also: Al Gore and information technology)

Mathematics

Marble bust of a man with a long, pointed beard, wearing a taenia, a kind of ancient Greek head covering in this case resembling a turban. The face is somewhat gaunt and has prominent, but thin, eyebrows, which seem halfway fixed into a scowl. The ends of his mustache are long a trail halfway down the length of his beard to about where the bottom of his chin would be if we could see it. None of the hair on his head is visible, since it is completely covered by the taenia.
Bust of Pythagoras in the Capitoline Museums, Rome.[805] Classical historians dispute whether he ever made any mathematical discoveries.[806][807]
  • The Greek philosopher Pythagoras was not the first to discover the equation expressed in the Pythagorean theorem, as it was known and used by the Babylonians and Indians centuries before him.[808][809][810][811] Pythagoras may have been the first to introduce it to the Greeks,[812][810] but the first record of it being mathematically proven as a theorem is in Euclid's Elements which was published some 200 years after Pythagoras.
  • There is no evidence that the ancient Greeks deliberately designed the Parthenon to match the golden ratio.[813] The Parthenon was completed in 438 BCE, more than a century before the first recorded mention of the ratio by Euclid. Similarly, Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man makes no mention of the golden ratio in its text, although it describes many other proportions.[814]
  • The repeating decimal commonly written as 0.999... represents exactly the same quantity as the number one. Despite having the appearance of representing a smaller number, 0.999... is a symbol for the number 1 in exactly the same way that 0.333... is an equivalent notation for the number represented by the fraction 13.[815]
  • The p-value is not the probability that the null hypothesis is true, or the probability that the alternative hypothesis is false; it is the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as the results actually observed under the assumption that the null hypothesis was correct, which can indicate the incompatibility of results with the specific statistical model assumed in the null hypothesis.[816] This misconception, and similar ones like it, contributes to the common misuse of p-values in education and research.[816][817]
  • If one were to flip a fair coin five times and get heads each time, it would not be any more likely for a sixth flip to come up tails. Phrased another way, after a long and/or unlikely streak of independently random events, the probability of the next event is not influenced by the preceding events. Humans often feel that the underrepresented outcome is more likely, as if it is due to happen. Such thinking may be attributed to the mistaken belief that gambling, or even chance itself, is a fair process that can correct itself in the event of streaks.[818]

Physics

An illustration of the (incorrect) equal-transit-time explanation of aerofoil lift
  • The lift force is not generated by the air taking the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing.[819] This misconception, sometimes called the equal transit-time fallacy, is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact, the air moving over the top of an aerofoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply,[819] as described in the incorrect and correct explanations of lift force.
  • Blowing over a curved piece of paper does not demonstrate Bernoulli's principle. Although a common classroom experiment is often explained this way,[820] Bernoulli's principle only applies within a flow field, and the air above and below the paper is in different flow fields.[821] The paper rises because the air follows the curve of the paper and a curved streamline will develop pressure differences perpendicular to the airflow.[822][823]
  • The Coriolis effect does not cause water to consistently drain from basins in a clockwise/counter-clockwise direction depending on the hemisphere. The common myth often refers to the draining action of flush toilets and bathtubs. In fact, rotation is determined by whatever minor rotation is initially present at the time the water starts to drain, as the magnitude of the coriolis acceleration is negligibly small compared to the inertial acceleration of flow within a typical basin.[824]
  • Neither gyroscopic forces nor geometric trail are required for a rider to balance a bicycle or for it to demonstrate self-stability.[825][826] Although gyroscopic forces and trail can be contributing factors, it has been demonstrated that those factors are neither required nor sufficient by themselves.[825]
  • A penny dropped from the Empire State Building would not kill a person or crack the sidewalk. A penny is too light and has too much air resistance to acquire enough speed to do much damage since it reaches terminal velocity after falling about 50 feet. Heavier or more aerodynamic objects could cause significant damage if dropped from that height.[827][828]
  • Using a programmable thermostat's setback feature to limit heating or cooling in a temporarily unoccupied building does not waste as much energy as leaving the temperature constant. Using setback saves energy (5–15%) because heat transfer across the surface of the building is roughly proportional to the temperature difference between its inside and the outside.[829][830]
  • It is not possible for a person to completely submerge in quicksand, as commonly depicted in fiction,[831] although sand entrapment in the nearshore of a body of water can be a drowning hazard as the tide rises.[832]
  • Quantum nonlocality caused by quantum entanglement does not allow faster-than-light communication or imply instant action at a distance, despite its common characterization as "spooky action at a distance". Rather, it means that certain experiments cannot be explained by local realism.[833][834]
  • The slipperiness of ice is not due to pressure melting. While it is true that increased pressure, such as that exerted by someone standing on a sheet of ice, will lower the melting point of ice, experiments show that the effect is too weak to account for the lowered friction. Materials scientists still debate whether premelting or the heat of friction is the dominant cause of ice's slipperiness.[835][836]

Psychology and neuroscience

  • Cannabis use in pregnancy is not low risk. The THC exposure resulting from cannabis use affects fetal brain development and the male offspring of cannabis users are, as a result, more susceptible to psychotic illness.[837] As of 2022, 70% of American women thought it was safe.[838]
  • True photographic memory (the ability to remember endless images, particularly pages or numbers, with such a high degree of precision that the image mimics a photo) has never been demonstrated to exist in any individual,[839] although a small number of young children have eidetic memory, where they can recall an object with high precision for a few minutes after it is no longer present.[840] Many people have claimed to have a photographic memory, but those people have been shown to have high precision memories as a result of mnemonic devices rather than a natural capacity for detailed memory encoding.[841] There are rare cases of individuals with exceptional memory, but none of them have a memory that mimics that of a camera.
  • The phase of the Moon does not influence fertility, cause a fluctuation in crime, or affect the stock market. There is no correlation between the lunar cycle and human biology or behavior. However, the increased amount of illumination during the full moon may account for increased epileptic episodes, motorcycle accidents, or sleep disorders.[842]

Mental disorders

  • Vaccines do not cause autism. There have been no successful attempts to reproduce fraudulent research by British ex-doctor Andrew Wakefield, where the misconception likely originates. Wakefield's research was ultimately shown to have been manipulated.[843]
  • Dyslexia is not defined or diagnosed as mirror writing or reading letters or words backwards.[844][845] Mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards are behaviors seen in many children (dyslexic or not) as they learn to read and write.[844][845] Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of people who have at least average intelligence and who have difficulty in reading and writing that is not otherwise explained by low intelligence.[846]
  • Self-harm is not generally an attention-seeking behavior. People who engage in self-harm are typically very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior, leading them to go to great lengths to conceal it from others.[847] They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing.[848][849]
  • There is no evidence that a chemical imbalance or neurotransmitter deficiency is the sole factor in depression and other mental disorders, but rather a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors.[850][851]
  • Schizophrenia is characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, paranoia, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social withdrawal, decreased emotional expression, and apathy.[852] The term was coined from the Greek roots schizein and phrēn, "to split" and "mind", in reference to a "splitting of mental functions" seen in schizophrenia, not a splitting of the personality.[853] It does not involve split or multiple personalities—a split or multiple personality is dissociative identity disorder.[854]

Brain

  • Broad generalizations are often made in popular psychology about certain brain functions being lateralized, or more predominant in one hemisphere than the other. These claims are often inaccurate or overstated.[855]
  • The human brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex, does not reach "full maturity" or "full development" at any particular age (e.g. 16, 18, 21, 25, 30). Changes in structure and myelination of gray matter are recorded to continue with relative consistency all throughout life including until death. Different mental abilities peak earlier or later in life.[856] The myth is believed to have originated from Jay Giedd's work on the adolescent brain funded by the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy,[857] though it has also been popularized by Laurence Steinberg in his work with adolescent criminal reform who has considered ages 10–25 to constitute cognitive adolescence, despite denying any connection to the notion of the brain maturing at '25'.[858]
Golgi-stained neurons in human hippocampal tissue. It is commonly believed that humans will not grow new brain cells, but research has shown that some neurons can reform in humans.
  • Humans do not generate all of the brain cells they will ever have by the age of two years. Although this belief was held by medical experts until 1998, it is now understood that new neurons can be created after infancy in some parts of the brain into late adulthood.[859]
  • People do not use only 10% of their brains.[860][861] While it is true that a small minority of neurons in the brain are actively firing at any one time, a healthy human will normally use most of their brain over the course of a day, and the inactive neurons are important as well. The idea that activating 100% of the brain would allow someone to achieve their maximum potential and/or gain various psychic abilities is common in folklore and fiction,[861][862][863] but doing so in real life would likely result in a fatal seizure.[864][865] This misconception was attributed to late 19th century leading thinker William James, who apparently used the expression only metaphorically.[862]
  • Although Phineas Gage's brain injuries, caused by a several-foot-long tamping rod driven completely through his skull, caused him to become temporarily disabled, many fanciful descriptions of his aberrant behavior in later life are without factual basis or contradicted by known facts.[866]

Senses

An incorrect map of the tongue showing zones that taste bitter (1), sour (2), salty (3) and sweet (4). Actually, all zones can sense all tastes, and there is also the taste of umami (not shown on picture).
  • Humans have more than the commonly cited five senses. The number of senses in various categorizations ranges from 5 to more than 20. In addition to sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing, which were the senses identified by Aristotle, humans can sense balance and acceleration (equilibrioception), pain (nociception), body and limb position (proprioception or kinesthetic sense), and relative temperature (thermoception).[867] Other senses sometimes identified are the sense of time, echolocation, itching, pressure, hunger, thirst, fullness of the stomach, need to urinate, need to defecate, blood carbon dioxide (CO2) levels,[868] and electric field sensation.[869]
  • All different tastes can be detected on all parts of the tongue by taste buds,[870] with slightly increased sensitivities in different locations depending on the person; the tongue map showing the contrary is fallacious.[871]
  • There are not four primary tastes, but five: in addition to bitter, sour, salty, and sweet, humans have taste receptors for umami, which is a "savory" or "meaty" taste.[872] Fat does interact with specific receptors in taste bud cells, but whether it is a sixth primary taste remains inconclusive.[873]
  • The human sense of smell is not weak or underdeveloped. Humans have similar senses of smell to other mammals, and are more sensitive to some odors than rodents and dogs.[874]

Toxicology

  • Smokeless tobacco is not a "safe" alternative to conventional tobacco; smokeless tobacco products contain nicotine and are therefore highly addictive.[875] They also can cause various harmful effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer, coronary heart disease, as well as negative reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight.[875][876]
  • Swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, as long as it goes into the stomach and not the lungs; inducing vomiting can make it worse.[877]
  • A chloroform-soaked rag cannot instantly incapacitate a person.[878] It takes at least five minutes of inhaling an item soaked in chloroform to render a person unconscious. Most criminal cases involving chloroform also involve another drug being co-administered, such as alcohol or diazepam, or the victim being found to have been complicit in its administration. The misconception that chloroform can be used as an incapacitating agent[879] has been popularized by crime fiction authors.
  • Although bananas contain naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, particularly potassium-40 (40K), which emit ionizing radiation when undergoing radioactive decay, the levels of such radiation are far too low to induce radiation poisoning, and bananas are not a radiation hazard. It would not be physically possible to eat enough bananas to cause radiation poisoning, as the radiation dose from bananas is non-cumulative.[880][881][882] (See also: Banana equivalent dose)
  • Ingesting Visine, a brand of eye drops, does not cause diarrhea. It is neurotoxic, with consumption causing several serious side-effects. Pranks spiking people with Visine rose after the misconception was popularized by the film Wedding Crashers.[883][884]

Transportation

  • The Bermuda Triangle does not have any more shipwrecks or mysterious disappearances than most other waterways.[885]
  • Toilet waste is never intentionally jettisoned from an aircraft. All waste is collected in tanks and emptied into toilet waste vehicles.[886] Blue ice is caused by accidental leakage from the waste tank. Passenger train toilets, on the other hand, have indeed historically flushed onto the tracks; modern trains in most developed countries usually have retention tanks on board and therefore do not dispose of waste in such a manner.
  • Automotive batteries stored on a concrete floor do not discharge any faster than they would on other surfaces, in spite of a worry that concrete harms batteries.[887] Early batteries with porous, leaky cases may have been susceptible to moisture from floors, but for many years lead–acid car batteries have had impermeable polypropylene cases.[888] While most modern automotive batteries are sealed, and do not leak battery acid when properly stored and maintained,[889] the sulfuric acid in them can leak out and stain, etch, or corrode concrete floors if their cases crack or tip over or their vent-holes are breached by floods.[890]

See also

References

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  876. ^ Gupta, Ruchika; Gupta, Sanjay; Sharma, Shashi; Sinha, Dhirendra N; Mehrotra, Ravi (January 1, 2019). "Risk of Coronary Heart Disease Among Smokeless Tobacco Users: Results of Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Global Data". Nicotine & Tobacco Research. 21 (1): 25–31. doi:10.1093/ntr/nty002. ISSN 1469-994X. PMC 6941711. PMID 29325111.
  877. ^ a. University of Utah Poison Control Center (June 24, 2014). "Dos and Don'ts in Case of Gasoline Poisoning". University of Utah.
    b. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (October 21, 2014). "Medical Management Guidelines for Gasoline (Mixture) CAS# 86290-81-5 and 8006-61-9". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
  878. ^ Payne, J. P. (July 1998). "The criminal use of chloroform". Anaesthesia. 53 (7): 685–690. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2044.1998.528-az0572.x. PMID 9771177. S2CID 1718276.
  879. ^ "Medical Annotation: Chloroform amongst Thieves". The Lancet. 2 (2200): 490–491. 1865. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(02)58434-8.
  880. ^ "The Most Common Medical Radiation Myths Dispelled". AdventHealth University. May 21, 2018. Retrieved November 5, 2022.
  881. ^ Loughran, Sarah (November 3, 2022). "Are bananas really 'radioactive'? An expert clears up common misunderstandings about radiation". The Conversation. Retrieved November 6, 2022.
  882. ^ a. Eisenbud, Merril; Gesell, Thomas F. (1997). Environmental radioactivity: from natural, industrial, and military sources. Academic Press. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-0-12-235154-9. It is important to recognize that the potassium content of the body is under strict homeostatic control and is not influenced by variations in environmental levels. For this reason, the dose from 40K in the body is constant.
    b. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999), Federal Guidance Report 13, page 16: "For example, the ingestion coefficient risk for 40K would not be appropriate for an application to ingestion of 40K in conjunction with an elevated intake of natural potassium. This is because the biokinetic model for potassium used in this document represents the relatively slow removal of potassium (biological half-time 30 days) that is estimated to occur for typical intakes of potassium, whereas an elevated intake of potassium would result in excretion of a nearly equal mass of natural potassium, and hence of 40K, over a short period."
    c. Maggie Koerth-Baker (August 27, 2010). "Bananas are radioactive—But they aren't a good way to explain radiation exposure". Retrieved May 25, 2011.. Attributes the title statement to Geoff Meggitt, former UK Atomic Energy Authority.
  883. ^ "Nothing funny about so-called 'Visine prank,' says pharmacist". Waterloo Region Record. July 24, 2013.
  884. ^ Blum, Deborah (March 25, 2013). "Just an (Eye) Drop of Poison". Wired.
  885. ^ a. "Study finds shipwrecks threaten precious seas". BBC News/science. June 7, 2013. Retrieved June 7, 2013.
    b. "Bermuda Triangle doesn't make the cut on list of world's most dangerous oceans". The Christian Science Monitor. June 10, 2013. Retrieved March 22, 2016.
    c. Kusche, Lawrence David (1975). The Bermuda Triangle Mystery Solved. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0-87975-971-1.
  886. ^ Philips, Matt (November 19, 2008). "On World Toilet Day, Let Us Praise the Airline Lav". The Middle Seat Terminal (Wall Street Journal). Archived from the original on December 14, 2013. Retrieved April 2, 2009.
  887. ^ "Battery Parked". Snopes. February 8, 2011. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
  888. ^ Magliozzi, Tom; Magliozzi, Ray (November 4, 1999). "No End to Battery Storage Debate". The Vindicator. p. 37.
  889. ^ a. Magliozzi, Tom; Magliozzi, Ray (2008). Ask Click and Clack: Answers from Car Talk. Chronicle Books. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-8118-6477-0. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
    b. "Car Care Auto Clinic". Popular Mechanics. Vol. 177, no. 11. November 2000. p. 136. ISSN 0032-4558. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
  890. ^ a. Youso, Karen (October 4, 2008). "Use care in cleaning battery-acid stain". The Seattle Times. Retrieved May 9, 2018.
    b. "Managing Used Lead-Acid Batteries" (PDF). Georgia Environmental Compliance Assistance Program. Georgia Tech Research Institute. July 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 28, 2020. Retrieved May 9, 2018.

Sources

  • Lisi, Clemente Angelo (2007). A history of the World Cup: 1930–2006. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5905-0.
  • Kahn, Charles H. (2001), Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History, Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England: Hackett Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-87220-575-8
  • O'Conner, Patricia T.; Kellerman, Stewart (2009). Origins of the Specious: Myths and Misconceptions of the English Language. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6660-5.
  • Smith, F. J. (January 1, 1979). "Some aspects of the tritone and the semitritone in the Speculum Musicae: the non-emergence of the diabolus in musica". Journal of Musicological Research. 3 (1–2): 63–74. doi:10.1080/01411897908574507. ISSN 0141-1896.
  • Solomon, Maynard (1995). Mozart: A Life (1st ed.). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-019046-0. OCLC 31435799.
  • Varasdi, J. Allen (1996). Myth Information: More Than 590 Popular Misconceptions, Fallacies, and Misbeliefs Explained!. Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-41049-8.

Further reading

  • Diefendorf, David (2007). Amazing... But False!: Hundreds of "Facts" You Thought Were True, But Aren't. Sterling. ISBN 978-1-4027-3791-6.
  • Green, Joey (2005). Contrary to Popular Belief: More than 250 False Facts Revealed. Broadway. ISBN 978-0-7679-1992-0.
  • Johnsen, Ferris (1994). La enciclopedia de conceptos erróneos populares: la guía definitiva para desmitificar falacias ampliamente aceptadas. Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8065-1556-4.
  • Kruszelnicki, Karl; Adam Yazxhi (2006). Grandes mitos y concepciones: la ciencia detrás de los mitos . Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7407-5364-0.
  • Lloyd, John; John Mitchinson (2006). El libro de la ignorancia general. Harmony Books. ISBN 978-0-307-39491-0.
  • Lloyd, John; John Mitchinson (2010). El segundo libro de la ignorancia general . Faber y Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-26965-5.
  • Scudellari, Megan (17 de diciembre de 2015). «Los mitos científicos que no morirán». Nature . 528 (7582): 322–25. Bibcode :2015Natur.528..322S. doi : 10.1038/528322a . PMID  26672537.
  • Tuleja, Tad (1999). Falacias fabulosas: más de 300 creencias populares que no son ciertas . Galahad Books. ISBN 978-1-57866-065-0.
  • Lista de conceptos erróneos de los niños sobre la ciencia
  • Conceptos erróneos que enseñan los libros de texto de ciencias
  • Mala ciencia
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