Los afroamericanos o negros americanos , también llamados anteriormente afroamericanos , son un grupo racial y étnico estadounidense . Según la definición del censo de los Estados Unidos , son estadounidenses que tienen ascendencia de "cualquiera de los grupos raciales negros de África ". [ 3 ] Los afroamericanos constituyen el tercer grupo racial y étnico más grande de los EE. UU., después de los estadounidenses blancos y los hispanos y latinos . [ 4 ] El término "afroamericano" generalmente denota a los descendientes de africanos esclavizados en los Estados Unidos . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Según las estimaciones anuales de la Oficina del Censo de los EE. UU . , al 1 de julio de 2024, la población negra total se estimaba en 42.951.595, lo que representa aproximadamente el 12,63 % de la población total de los EE. UU . [ 7 ]
La historia afroamericana comenzó en el siglo XVI, cuando los traficantes de esclavos, principalmente de África Occidental y Central, vendieron artesanos, agricultores y guerreros africanos a traficantes europeos , quienes los transportaron a través del Atlántico hasta el hemisferio occidental. Fueron vendidos como esclavos a colonos europeos y obligados a trabajar en plantaciones , sobre todo en las colonias del sur . Algunos lograron alcanzar la libertad mediante la manumisión o la fuga, y fundaron comunidades independientes antes y durante la Revolución Americana . Tras la fundación de Estados Unidos en 1783, la mayoría de los afroamericanos continuaron esclavizados , principalmente en el sur del país , y cuatro millones de personas esclavizadas solo fueron liberadas tras la victoria del Norte sobre el Sur en la Guerra Civil de 1861 a 1865. [ 8 ]
Durante la Reconstrucción , los afroamericanos obtuvieron la ciudadanía y los hombres adultos el derecho al voto ; sin embargo, debido a la creencia generalizada en la supremacía blanca , fueron tratados como ciudadanos de segunda clase y pronto se les privó efectivamente del derecho al voto en el Sur . Estas circunstancias cambiaron gracias a la participación en los conflictos militares de Estados Unidos , la migración sustancial desde el Sur , la eliminación de la segregación racial legal y el movimiento por los derechos civiles que buscaba la libertad política y social. No obstante, el racismo contra los afroamericanos y la desigualdad socioeconómica racial siguen siendo un problema en el siglo XXI.
En los siglos XX y XXI, la inmigración ha desempeñado un papel cada vez más significativo en la comunidad afroamericana. En 2022, el 10% de la población negra de EE. UU. eran inmigrantes, y el 20% eran inmigrantes o hijos de inmigrantes. [ 9 ] Si bien algunos inmigrantes negros o sus hijos también pueden llegar a identificarse como afroamericanos, la mayoría de los inmigrantes de primera generación no lo hacen, prefiriendo identificarse con su nación de origen. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] La mayoría de los afroamericanos son de ascendencia de África Occidental y de la costa de África Central , con cantidades variables de ascendencia de Europa Occidental y de nativos americanos (véase §Genética ).
La cultura afroamericana ha ejercido una influencia significativa en la cultura mundial, realizando numerosas contribuciones al idioma inglés , la literatura , la política , la gastronomía , los deportes y la música . La contribución afroamericana a la música popular es tan profunda que la mayor parte de la música popular estadounidense , incluyendo el gospel , el blues , el jazz , el rock and roll , el R&B , el soul , el funk , la música disco , el hip-hop y el house, tiene su origen, parcial o totalmente, en la comunidad afroamericana. [ 12 ] [ 13 ]
Historia
Época colonial

La gran mayoría de las personas esclavizadas y transportadas en la trata transatlántica de esclavos pertenecían a diversos grupos étnicos de África central y occidental . Habían sido capturadas directamente por traficantes de esclavos europeos en incursiones costeras, [ 14 ] o capturadas y vendidas por traficantes de esclavos de África occidental o por "príncipes mercaderes" de ascendencia europea [ 15 ] a traficantes de esclavos europeos, quienes las llevaron a América. [ 16 ]
Los primeros esclavos africanos en lo que hoy es Estados Unidos llegaron a principios del siglo XVI. Algunos africanos formaron parte del viaje de Juan Ponce de León en 1513, que desembarcó en lo que se convertiría en la Florida española , y otros africanos esclavizados llegaron aproximadamente al mismo tiempo a Puerto Rico español . [ 17 ] [ 18 ]
Los africanos también llegaron a través de Santo Domingo, en el Caribe , a la colonia de San Miguel de Gualdape (probablemente ubicada en la zona de la bahía de Winyah , en la actual Carolina del Sur ), fundada por el explorador español Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón en 1526. [ 19 ] La desafortunada colonia se vio casi de inmediato interrumpida por una lucha por el liderazgo, durante la cual los esclavos se rebelaron y huyeron para buscar refugio entre los nativos americanos locales . De Ayllón y muchos de los colonos murieron poco después a causa de una epidemia, y la colonia fue abandonada. Los colonos y los esclavos que no habían escapado regresaron a la isla de La Española , de donde habían venido. [ 19 ]
El explorador esclavizado Esteban llegó a Florida con la expedición de Narváez en 1528, un viaje que primero desembarcó en Santo Domingo y luego viajó al Texas español y al suroeste antes de terminar en México. [ 20 ]
El matrimonio entre Luisa de Abrego, una sirvienta negra libre de Sevilla , y Miguel Rodríguez, un conquistador blanco segoviano, en 1565 en San Agustín (Florida española), es el primer matrimonio cristiano conocido y registrado en lo que hoy es el territorio continental de los Estados Unidos. [ 21 ]

Los primeros africanos registrados en la América inglesa (incluida la mayor parte de los futuros Estados Unidos) fueron "veinte y tantos negros" que llegaron a Jamestown , Virginia, vía Cabo Comfort en agosto de 1619 como sirvientes por contrato . [ 22 ] A medida que muchos colonos virginianos comenzaron a morir debido a las duras condiciones, cada vez más africanos fueron traídos para trabajar como jornaleros. [ 23 ]
Un sirviente por contrato (que podía ser blanco o negro) trabajaba durante varios años (generalmente de cuatro a siete) sin salario. La situación de los sirvientes por contrato en los inicios de Virginia y Maryland era similar a la esclavitud. Los sirvientes podían ser comprados, vendidos o arrendados, y podían ser golpeados físicamente por desobediencia o intento de fuga. A diferencia de los esclavos, eran liberados al expirar su período de servicio o si compraban su libertad. Sus hijos no heredaban su condición, y al ser liberados del contrato recibían "una provisión anual de maíz, ropa doble, herramientas necesarias" y un pequeño pago en efectivo llamado "cuota de libertad". [ 24 ] Los africanos podían cultivar legalmente cosechas y criar ganado para comprar su libertad. [ 25 ] Formaban familias, se casaban con otros africanos y, a veces, se casaban con nativos americanos o colonos europeos . [ 26 ]

Hacia las décadas de 1640 y 1650, varias familias africanas poseían granjas alrededor de Jamestown , y algunas se enriquecieron según los estándares coloniales y compraron sirvientes por contrato. En 1640, la Corte General de Virginia registró la primera documentación de esclavitud de por vida cuando condenó a John Punch , un negro, a servidumbre de por vida bajo su amo Hugh Gwyn , por haberse fugado. [ 28 ] [ 29 ]
En la Florida española , algunos españoles se casaron o contrajeron matrimonio con mujeres de Pensacola , Creek o africanas , tanto esclavizadas como libres, y sus descendientes crearon una población mestiza de mestizos y mulatos . Los españoles animaron a los esclavos de la colonia de Georgia a venir a Florida como refugio, prometiéndoles la libertad a cambio de su conversión al catolicismo . El rey Carlos II emitió una proclamación real que liberaba a todos los esclavos que huyeran a la Florida española y aceptaran la conversión y el bautismo. La mayoría se dirigió a la zona de San Agustín , pero algunos esclavos fugitivos también llegaron a Pensacola. San Agustín había reunido una milicia compuesta exclusivamente por negros para defender la Florida española ya en 1683. [ 30 ]

Uno de los inmigrantes africanos holandeses, Anthony Johnson , sería más tarde propietario de uno de los primeros "esclavos" negros, John Casor , como resultado del fallo judicial de un caso civil. [ 31 ] [ 32 ]
La concepción popular de un sistema de esclavitud basado en la raza no se desarrolló plenamente hasta el siglo XVIII. La Compañía Neerlandesa de las Indias Occidentales introdujo la esclavitud en 1625 con la importación de once esclavos negros a Nueva Ámsterdam (actual ciudad de Nueva York). Sin embargo, todos los esclavos de la colonia fueron liberados tras su rendición a los ingleses. [ 33 ]
Massachusetts fue la primera colonia inglesa en reconocer legalmente la esclavitud en 1641. En 1662, Virginia promulgó una ley que establecía que los hijos de mujeres esclavizadas tendrían la condición de la madre, en lugar de la del padre, como ocurría bajo el derecho consuetudinario . Este principio legal se denominó partus sequitur ventrum . [ 34 ] [ 35 ]
Mediante una ley de 1699, Virginia ordenó la deportación de todos los negros libres, definiendo de hecho como esclavos a todas las personas de ascendencia africana que permanecieron en la colonia. [ 36 ] En 1670, la asamblea colonial aprobó una ley que prohibía a los negros libres y bautizados (y a los nativos americanos) comprar cristianos (en esta ley se refería a los europeos blancos), pero les permitía comprar personas "de su propia nación". [ 37 ]

En la Luisiana española , aunque no hubo un movimiento hacia la abolición del comercio de esclavos africanos, el dominio español introdujo una nueva ley llamada coartación , que permitía a los esclavos comprar su libertad y la de otros. [ 40 ] Si bien algunos no tenían el dinero para hacerlo, las medidas gubernamentales sobre la esclavitud posibilitaron la existencia de muchos negros libres. Esto causó problemas a los españoles con los criollos franceses (franceses que se habían asentado en Nueva Francia ) que también habían poblado la Luisiana española. Los criollos franceses citaron esa medida como uno de los peores elementos del sistema. [ 41 ]
Establecidas por primera vez en Carolina del Sur en 1704, se formaron grupos de hombres blancos armados —patrullas de esclavos— para vigilar a las personas negras esclavizadas. [ 42 ] Su función era controlar a los esclavos, especialmente a los fugitivos. Los dueños de esclavos temían que estos pudieran organizar revueltas o rebeliones , por lo que se formaron milicias estatales para proporcionar una estructura de mando militar y disciplina dentro de las patrullas de esclavos. Estas patrullas se utilizaban para detectar, interceptar y sofocar cualquier reunión organizada de esclavos que pudiera derivar en revueltas o rebeliones . [ 42 ]
Las primeras congregaciones e iglesias afroamericanas se organizaron antes de 1800 tanto en ciudades del norte como del sur tras el Gran Despertar . Para 1775, los africanos constituían el 20% de la población de las colonias americanas , lo que los convertía en el segundo grupo étnico más numeroso después de los estadounidenses de origen inglés . [ 43 ]
Desde la Revolución Americana hasta la Guerra Civil

Durante la década de 1770, los africanos, tanto esclavizados como libres, ayudaron a los colonos estadounidenses rebeldes a asegurar su independencia al derrotar a los británicos en la Guerra de Independencia de Estados Unidos . [ 44 ] Los negros desempeñaron un papel en ambos bandos de la Revolución Americana. Entre los activistas de la causa patriota se encontraban James Armistead , el príncipe Whipple y Oliver Cromwell . [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Alrededor de 15 000 lealistas negros partieron con los británicos después de la guerra, la mayoría de ellos terminaron como personas negras libres en Inglaterra [ 47 ] o sus colonias, como los negros de Nueva Escocia y los criollos de Sierra Leona . [ 48 ] [ 49 ]
En la Luisiana española , el gobernador Bernardo de Gálvez organizó a hombres negros libres españoles en dos compañías de milicia para defender Nueva Orleans durante la Revolución Americana. Lucharon en la batalla de 1779 en la que España capturó Baton Rouge a los británicos. Gálvez también los comandó en campañas contra los puestos de avanzada británicos en Mobile, Alabama , y Pensacola , Florida. Reclutó esclavos para la milicia prometiendo liberar a cualquiera que resultara gravemente herido y asegurar un precio bajo por la coartación (comprar su libertad y la de otros) para aquellos que sufrieran heridas menores. Durante la década de 1790, el gobernador Francisco Luis Héctor, barón de Carondelet, reforzó las fortificaciones locales y reclutó aún más hombres negros libres para la milicia. Carondelet duplicó el número de hombres negros libres que servían, creando dos compañías de milicia más: una compuesta por miembros negros y la otra por pardos (mestizos). Servir en la milicia acercó a los hombres negros libres un paso más a la igualdad con los blancos, otorgándoles, por ejemplo, el derecho a portar armas y aumentando su capacidad de generar ingresos. Sin embargo, en realidad, estos privilegios los distanciaron de los negros esclavizados y los impulsaron a identificarse con los blancos. [ 41 ]
La esclavitud había sido tácitamente consagrada en la Constitución de los Estados Unidos a través de disposiciones como el Artículo I, Sección 2, Cláusula 3, comúnmente conocido como el compromiso de 3/5 . Debido a las restricciones de la Sección 9, Cláusula 1 , el Congreso no pudo aprobar una Ley que prohibiera la importación de esclavos hasta 1807. [ 50 ] Las leyes de esclavos fugitivos (derivadas de la Cláusula de Esclavos Fugitivos de la Constitución: Artículo IV, Sección 2, Cláusula 3 ) fueron aprobadas por el Congreso tanto en 1793 como en 1850 , garantizando el derecho de un propietario de esclavos a recuperar a un esclavo fugitivo en cualquier lugar dentro de los Estados Unidos. [ 39 ] Los propietarios de esclavos, que veían a las personas esclavizadas como propiedad, se aseguraron de que se convirtiera en un delito federal ayudar o asistir a aquellos que habían huido de la esclavitud o interferir con su captura. [ 38 ] Para entonces, la esclavitud, que afectaba casi exclusivamente a las personas negras, se había convertido en el tema político más crítico y polémico en los Estados Unidos anteriores a la Guerra de Secesión , provocando repetidamente crisis y conflictos. Entre ellos se encontraban el Compromiso de Missouri , el Compromiso de 1850 , la infame decisión del caso Dred Scott y la incursión de John Brown en Harpers Ferry .

Antes de la Guerra Civil , ocho presidentes en ejercicio habían poseído esclavos, una práctica protegida legalmente por la Constitución de los Estados Unidos. [ 51 ] Para 1860, el número de personas negras esclavizadas en los Estados Unidos había aumentado a entre 3,5 y 4,4 millones, en gran parte como resultado del comercio transatlántico de esclavos . Además, entre 488.000 y 500.000 personas negras vivían libres en todo el país, con limitaciones legisladas [ 52 ] [ 53 ] impuestas sobre ellas, además de un "prejuicio insuperable" por parte de los blancos, según Henry Clay . [ 54 ] En respuesta a estas condiciones, algunas personas negras libres optaron por abandonar los Estados Unidos y emigrar a Liberia, en África Occidental. [ 52 ] Liberia había sido establecida en 1821 como un asentamiento por la Sociedad Americana de Colonización (ACS), y muchos miembros abolicionistas de la ACS creían que los afroamericanos tendrían mayores oportunidades de libertad e igualdad en África que en los Estados Unidos. [ 52 ]
Los esclavos no solo representaban una importante inversión financiera para sus dueños, sino que también desempeñaban un papel crucial en la producción del producto y exportación más valioso del país: el algodón . Las personas esclavizadas fueron fundamentales en la construcción de varias estructuras prominentes, como el Capitolio de los Estados Unidos , la Casa Blanca y otros edificios ubicados en Washington, D.C. [ 55 ] Existían proyectos de construcción similares en los estados esclavistas .

Para 1815, el comercio interno de esclavos se había convertido en una actividad económica importante y significativa en los Estados Unidos, y continuó prosperando hasta la década de 1860. [ 56 ] Los historiadores estiman que casi un millón de personas fueron sometidas a esta migración forzada, a la que a menudo se hacía referencia como un nuevo "Paso Medio". El historiador Ira Berlin describió esta migración interna forzada de personas esclavizadas como el "acontecimiento central" en la vida de un esclavo durante el período comprendido entre la Revolución Americana y la Guerra Civil. Berlin enfatizó que, ya sea que las personas esclavizadas fueran desarraigadas directamente o vivieran con el temor constante de que ellas o sus familias fueran reubicadas involuntariamente, "la deportación masiva traumatizó a la población negra" en todo Estados Unidos. [ 57 ] Como resultado de este movimiento forzado a gran escala, innumerables personas perdieron su conexión con sus familias y clanes, y muchos africanos étnicos perdieron su conocimiento de los diversos orígenes tribales en África. [ 56 ]
La fotografía de Wilson Chinn de 1863 , un esclavo marcado de Luisiana, junto con la famosa imagen de Gordon y su espalda marcada por las cicatrices, sirvieron como dos de los primeros y más poderosos ejemplos de cómo el incipiente medio de la fotografía podía utilizarse para documentar visualmente y plasmar la brutalidad y la crueldad de la esclavitud. [ 58 ]

La emigración de personas negras libres a su continente de origen se había propuesto desde la Guerra de Independencia. Tras la independencia de Haití , se intentó reclutar a afroamericanos para que emigraran allí después de restablecer las relaciones comerciales con Estados Unidos. La Unión Haitiana fue un grupo formado para promover las relaciones entre ambos países. [ 59 ] Después de los disturbios contra la población negra en Cincinnati , su comunidad negra patrocinó la fundación de la Colonia Wilberforce , un asentamiento inicialmente exitoso de inmigrantes afroamericanos en Canadá. La colonia fue una de las primeras entidades políticas independientes de este tipo. Perduró durante varias décadas y sirvió de destino para unas 200 familias negras que emigraban de diversas localidades de Estados Unidos. [ 59 ]
En 1863, durante la Guerra Civil Estadounidense , el presidente Abraham Lincoln firmó la Proclamación de Emancipación . La proclamación declaraba libres a todos los esclavos en territorio controlado por la Confederación. [ 60 ] Las tropas de la Unión que avanzaban hicieron cumplir la proclamación, siendo Texas el último estado en ser emancipado, en 1865. [ 61 ]

La esclavitud en algunos estados fronterizos continuó hasta la ratificación de la Decimotercera Enmienda en diciembre de 1865. [ 62 ] Si bien la Ley de Naturalización de 1790 limitaba la ciudadanía estadounidense solo a los blancos, [ 63 ] [ 64 ] la Decimocuarta Enmienda (1868) otorgó la ciudadanía a las personas negras, y la Decimoquinta Enmienda (1870) otorgó a los hombres negros el derecho al voto. [ 65 ]
Era de la Reconstrucción y Jim Crow
Los afroamericanos rápidamente establecieron congregaciones, escuelas y asociaciones comunitarias/cívicas para tener un espacio alejado del control o la supervisión de los blancos. Si bien la era de la Reconstrucción posterior a la guerra fue inicialmente una época de progreso para los afroamericanos, ese período terminó en 1876. A finales de la década de 1890, los estados del Sur promulgaron las leyes Jim Crow para imponer la segregación racial y la privación del derecho al voto . [ 66 ] La segregación se impuso mediante las leyes Jim Crow, utilizando letreros que indicaban a los negros dónde podían caminar, hablar, beber, descansar o comer legalmente. [ 67 ] En aquellos lugares con mezcla racial, las personas no blancas tenían que esperar hasta que se atendiera a todos los clientes blancos. [ 67 ] La mayoría de los afroamericanos obedecieron las leyes Jim Crow para evitar la violencia por motivos raciales . Para mantener la autoestima y la dignidad, afroamericanos como Anthony Overton y Mary McLeod Bethune continuaron construyendo sus propias escuelas , iglesias , bancos, clubes sociales y otros negocios. [ 68 ]
En la última década del siglo XIX, las leyes discriminatorias por motivos raciales y la violencia racial contra los afroamericanos proliferaron en Estados Unidos, un período a menudo denominado el " punto más bajo de las relaciones raciales estadounidenses ". Estos actos discriminatorios incluyeron la segregación racial —confirmada por la decisión de la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos en el caso Plessy contra Ferguson en 1896—, que fue impuesta legalmente por los estados del sur y a nivel nacional a nivel local; la supresión del voto o la privación del derecho al voto en los estados del sur; la negación de oportunidades económicas o recursos en todo el país; y actos privados de violencia y violencia racial masiva contra los afroamericanos, sin obstáculos ni el apoyo de las autoridades gubernamentales. [ 69 ]
Gran migración y movimiento por los derechos civiles


Las condiciones desesperadas de los afroamericanos en el Sur impulsaron la Gran Migración durante la primera mitad del siglo XX, lo que llevó a una creciente comunidad afroamericana en el norte y el oeste de los Estados Unidos. [ 71 ] La rápida afluencia de negros perturbó el equilibrio racial dentro de las ciudades del norte y el oeste, exacerbando la hostilidad entre negros y blancos en ambas regiones. [ 72 ] El Verano Rojo de 1919 estuvo marcado por cientos de muertes y un mayor número de heridos en todo Estados Unidos como resultado de los disturbios raciales que ocurrieron en más de tres docenas de ciudades, como los disturbios raciales de Chicago de 1919 y los disturbios raciales de Omaha de 1919. En general, los negros en las ciudades del norte y el oeste experimentaron discriminación sistémica en una gran cantidad de aspectos de la vida. En el ámbito laboral, las oportunidades económicas para los negros se canalizaban hacia los puestos de menor estatus y restringían su movilidad potencial. En la Conferencia Negra de Hampton de 1900 , el reverendo Matthew Anderson dijo: "...las líneas a lo largo de la mayoría de las vías de obtención de salario están trazadas de manera más rígida en el Norte que en el Sur". [ 73 ] Dentro del mercado inmobiliario, se utilizaron medidas discriminatorias más severas en correlación con la afluencia, lo que resultó en una mezcla de "violencia selectiva, pactos restrictivos , segregación racial y orientación racial ". [ 74 ] Mientras que muchos blancos defendieron su espacio con violencia, intimidación o tácticas legales contra los afroamericanos, muchos otros blancos emigraron a regiones suburbanas o periurbanas racialmente más homogéneas, un proceso conocido como huida blanca . [ 75 ]

A pesar de la discriminación, un factor clave para escapar de la desesperanza en el Sur fue el crecimiento de instituciones y comunidades afroamericanas en las ciudades del Norte. Estas instituciones incluían organizaciones orientadas a la comunidad negra (por ejemplo, la Liga Urbana , la NAACP ), iglesias, empresas y periódicos, así como logros en el desarrollo de la cultura intelectual, musical y popular afroamericana (por ejemplo, el Renacimiento de Harlem , el Renacimiento Negro de Chicago ). El Cotton Club en Harlem era un establecimiento exclusivo para blancos, donde se permitía actuar a artistas negros (como Duke Ellington ), pero ante un público blanco. [ 76 ] Los afroamericanos también encontraron un nuevo terreno para el poder político en las ciudades del Norte, sin las limitaciones impuestas por las leyes de Jim Crow . [ 77 ] [ 78 ]
Para la década de 1950, el movimiento por los derechos civiles estaba cobrando impulso. Un linchamiento en 1955 que desató la indignación pública por la injusticia fue el de Emmett Till , un niño de 14 años de Chicago. Pasando el verano con parientes en Money, Mississippi , Till fue asesinado por supuestamente haberle silbado a una mujer blanca. Till había sido brutalmente golpeado, le sacaron un ojo y le dispararon en la cabeza. La respuesta visceral a la decisión de su madre de celebrar un funeral con ataúd abierto movilizó a la comunidad negra en todo Estados Unidos. [ 79 ] Vann Newkirk escribió "el juicio de sus asesinos se convirtió en un espectáculo que iluminó la tiranía de la supremacía blanca ". [ 79 ] El estado de Mississippi juzgó a dos acusados, pero fueron rápidamente absueltos por un jurado compuesto exclusivamente por blancos . [ 80 ] Cien días después del asesinato de Emmett Till, Rosa Parks se negó a ceder su asiento en el autobús en Alabama; de hecho, Parks le dijo a la madre de Emmett, Mamie Till , que "la fotografía del rostro desfigurado de Emmett en el ataúd se le quedó grabada en la mente cuando se negó a ceder su asiento en el autobús de Montgomery". [ 81 ]

Se atribuye a la Marcha sobre Washington por el Trabajo y la Libertad, y a las condiciones que la propiciaron, la presión ejercida sobre los presidentes John F. Kennedy y Lyndon B. Johnson . Johnson apoyó la aprobación de la Ley de Derechos Civiles de 1964, que prohibía la discriminación en los servicios públicos, el empleo y los sindicatos , y la Ley de Derecho al Voto de 1965, que amplió la autoridad federal sobre los estados para garantizar la participación política de la población negra mediante la protección del registro de votantes y las elecciones. [ 82 ] En 1966, el surgimiento del movimiento del Poder Negro , que se extendió de 1966 a 1975, amplió los objetivos del movimiento por los derechos civiles para incluir la autosuficiencia económica y política, y la libertad de la autoridad blanca. [ 83 ]
Durante el período de posguerra, muchos afroamericanos continuaron en desventaja económica en comparación con otros estadounidenses. El ingreso promedio de los negros se situó en el 54 por ciento del de los trabajadores blancos en 1947, y en el 55 por ciento en 1962. En 1959, el ingreso familiar medio para los blancos era de $5,600 ( equivalente a $61,849 en 2025 ), en comparación con $2,900 ( equivalente a $32,029 en 2025 ) para las familias no blancas. En 1965, el 43 por ciento de todas las familias negras se encontraban en el umbral de pobreza, con ingresos inferiores a $3,000 ( equivalente a $30,649 en 2025 ) al año. La década de 1960 vio mejoras en las condiciones sociales y económicas de muchos afroamericanos. [ 84 ]
Entre 1965 y 1969, los ingresos de las familias negras aumentaron del 54% al 60% de los ingresos de las familias blancas. En 1968, el 23% de las familias negras ganaban menos de 3000 dólares ( equivalente a 27 775 dólares en 2025 ) al año, en comparación con el 41% en 1960. En 1965, el 19% de los afroamericanos tenían ingresos iguales a la mediana nacional, una proporción que aumentó al 27% en 1967. En 1960, el nivel medio de educación para los negros era de 10,8 años, y a finales de la década de 1960, la cifra aumentó a 12,2 años, medio año por debajo de la mediana para los blancos. [ 84 ]
Era posterior a los derechos civiles
Política y económicamente, los afroamericanos han logrado avances sustanciales durante la era posterior a los derechos civiles. En 1967, Thurgood Marshall se convirtió en el primer juez afroamericano de la Corte Suprema. En 1968, Shirley Chisholm se convirtió en la primera mujer negra elegida al Congreso de los Estados Unidos . En 1989, Douglas Wilder se convirtió en el primer gobernador afroamericano electo en la historia de los Estados Unidos. Clarence Thomas sucedió a Marshall y se convirtió en el segundo juez afroamericano de la Corte Suprema en 1991. En 1992, Carol Moseley-Braun de Illinois se convirtió en la primera mujer afroamericana elegida al Senado de los Estados Unidos . En el año 2000, había 8936 funcionarios negros en los Estados Unidos, lo que representa un aumento neto de 7467 desde 1970. En 2001, había 484 alcaldes negros. [ 85 ]

En 2005, el número de africanos que inmigraron a los Estados Unidos, en un solo año, superó el número máximo de los que fueron traídos involuntariamente a los Estados Unidos durante el comercio transatlántico de esclavos . [ 86 ] El 4 de noviembre de 2008, el senador demócrata Barack Obama —hijo de una madre estadounidense blanca y un padre keniano— derrotó al senador republicano John McCain para convertirse en el primer afroamericano en ser elegido presidente. Al menos el 95 por ciento de los votantes afroamericanos votaron por Obama. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] También recibió un apoyo abrumador de jóvenes blancos educados, una mayoría de asiáticos , [ 89 ] e hispanos , [ 89 ] obteniendo varios estados nuevos en la columna electoral demócrata. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] Obama perdió el voto blanco general, aunque ganó una mayor proporción de votos blancos que cualquier otro candidato presidencial demócrata no titular anterior desde Jimmy Carter . [ 90 ] Obama fue reelegido para un segundo y último mandato , por un margen similar el 6 de noviembre de 2012. [ 91 ] En 2021, Kamala Harris , hija de padre jamaicano y madre india, se convirtió en la primera mujer, la primera afroamericana y la primera estadounidense de origen asiático en servir como vicepresidenta de los Estados Unidos . [ 92 ] En junio de 2021, Juneteenth , un día que conmemora el fin de la esclavitud en los Estados Unidos, se convirtió en un día festivo federal. [ 93 ]
Datos demográficos






En 1790, cuando se realizó el primer censo de Estados Unidos , los africanos (incluidos esclavos y personas libres) sumaban alrededor de 760.000, aproximadamente el 19,3% de la población. En 1860, al comienzo de la Guerra Civil , la población afroamericana había aumentado a 4,4 millones, pero su porcentaje descendió al 14% de la población total del país. La gran mayoría eran esclavos, y solo 488.000 se contabilizaban como « hombres libres ». Para 1900, la población negra se había duplicado y alcanzaba los 8,8 millones. [ 94 ]
En 1910, aproximadamente el 90% de los afroamericanos vivían en el Sur. Un gran número comenzó a migrar hacia el norte en busca de mejores oportunidades laborales y condiciones de vida, y para escapar de las leyes de segregación racial y la violencia racial. La Gran Migración , como se la denominó, abarcó desde la década de 1890 hasta la de 1970. Desde 1916 hasta la década de 1960, más de seis millones de personas negras se trasladaron al norte. Pero en las décadas de 1970 y 1980, esa tendencia se revirtió , y más afroamericanos se mudaron al sur, al Cinturón del Sol , que los que lo abandonaron. [ 95 ]
La población afroamericana en Estados Unidos disminuyó con el tiempo como porcentaje de la población total hasta 1930, y desde entonces ha ido en aumento:
Para 1990, la población afroamericana alcanzó aproximadamente los 30 millones y representaba el 12% de la población de Estados Unidos, aproximadamente la misma proporción que en 1900. [ 97 ]
En el momento del censo estadounidense de 2000 , el 54,8% de los afroamericanos vivían en el Sur . Ese año, el 17,6% vivían en el Noreste y el 18,7% en el Medio Oeste , mientras que solo el 8,9% vivían en los estados del Oeste . Sin embargo, el Oeste tiene una población negra considerable en ciertas áreas. California, el estado más poblado del país, tiene la quinta población afroamericana más grande, solo por detrás de Nueva York, Texas, Georgia y Florida. Según el censo de 2000, aproximadamente el 2,05% de los afroamericanos se identificaron como de origen hispano o latino , [ 99 ] muchos de los cuales pueden ser de ascendencia brasileña , puertorriqueña , dominicana , cubana , haitiana u otra latinoamericana . Los únicos grupos ancestrales que se autodeclararon más grandes que los afroamericanos son los irlandeses y los alemanes . [ 100 ]

Según el censo de 2010 , casi el 3% de las personas que se autoidentificaron como negras tenían antepasados recientes que inmigraron de otro país. Los inmigrantes negros no hispanos autodeclarados del Caribe , principalmente de Jamaica y Haití, representaron el 0,9% de la población de EE. UU., es decir, 2,6 millones. [ 102 ] Los inmigrantes negros autodeclarados del África subsahariana también representaron el 0,9%, es decir, alrededor de 2,8 millones. [ 102 ] Además, los hispanos autodeclarados representaron el 0,4% de la población de los Estados Unidos, es decir, alrededor de 1,2 millones de personas, que se encuentran principalmente en las comunidades puertorriqueña y dominicana. [ 103 ] Los inmigrantes negros autodeclarados provenientes de otros países de América, como Brasil y Canadá, así como de varios países europeos, representaron menos del 0,1% de la población. Los estadounidenses de raza mixta, hispanos y no hispanos, que se identificaron como parcialmente negros, representaron el 0,9% de la población. Del 12,6 % de los residentes de Estados Unidos que se identificaron como negros, alrededor del 10,3 % eran "afroamericanos nativos" o afroamericanos étnicos, descendientes directos de africanos occidentales/centrales traídos a Estados Unidos como esclavos. Estas personas representan más del 80 % de todos los negros del país. Si se incluyen las personas de origen mestizo , aproximadamente el 13,5 % de la población estadounidense se autoidentificó como negra o "mestiza". [ 104 ] Sin embargo, según la Oficina del Censo de Estados Unidos, la evidencia del censo de 2000 indica que muchos grupos étnicos inmigrantes africanos y caribeños no se identifican como "negros, afroamericanos o negros". En cambio, escribieron sus respectivos grupos étnicos en la casilla "Alguna otra raza". Como resultado, la Oficina del Censo creó en 2010 una nueva categoría separada de grupo étnico "afroamericano" para los afroamericanos étnicos. [ 105 ] Los estadounidenses de origen nigeriano y etíope fueron los grupos subsaharianos más reportados en los Estados Unidos. [ 106 ]
En el censo de 2020, la población afroamericana fue subestimada en un 3,3%, frente al 2,1% de 2010. [ 107 ]
Proporción en cada condado
- Distribución de la población afroamericana (solamente) a lo largo del tiempo
1790
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Texas tiene la mayor población afroamericana por estado, con aproximadamente cuatro millones. [ 108 ] Le siguen Florida , con 3,8 millones, y Georgia , con 3,6 millones. [ 109 ] Misisipi es el estado con la mayor proporción de población afroamericana, con un 39%. Le siguen Luisiana, con un 34%, y Georgia, con un 32%. [ 108 ]
ciudades de Estados Unidos
Después de 100 años de que los afroamericanos abandonaran el sur en grandes cantidades en busca de mejores oportunidades y trato en el oeste y el norte, un movimiento conocido como la Gran Migración , ahora hay una tendencia inversa, llamada la Nueva Gran Migración . Al igual que con la Gran Migración anterior, la Nueva Gran Migración se dirige principalmente hacia ciudades y grandes áreas urbanas, como Charlotte , Houston , Dallas , Fort Worth , Huntsville , Raleigh , Tampa , San Antonio , Nueva Orleans , Memphis , Nashville , Jacksonville , etc. [ 110 ] Un porcentaje creciente de afroamericanos del oeste y el norte está migrando a la región sur de los EE. UU. por razones económicas y culturales. En 2020, las áreas metropolitanas de la ciudad de Nueva York , Chicago y Los Ángeles tuvieron la mayor disminución de afroamericanos, mientras que Atlanta , Dallas y Houston tuvieron el mayor aumento respectivamente. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] A pesar de los descensos recientes, a partir de 2020, el área metropolitana de la ciudad de Nueva York todavía tiene la mayor población metropolitana afroamericana de los Estados Unidos y la única que tiene más de tres millones de afroamericanos. [ 113 ] [ 114 ]
Entre las ciudades de 100.000 habitantes o más , South Fulton, Georgia, tuvo el mayor porcentaje de residentes negros de cualquier gran ciudad estadounidense en 2020, con un 93%. Otras grandes ciudades con mayorías afroamericanas incluyen Jackson, Mississippi (80%), Detroit, Michigan (80%), Birmingham, Alabama (70%), Miami Gardens, Florida (67%), Memphis, Tennessee (63%), Montgomery, Alabama (62%), Baltimore, Maryland (60%), Augusta, Georgia (59%), Shreveport, Louisiana (58%), Nueva Orleans, Louisiana (57%), Macon, Georgia (56%), Baton Rouge, Louisiana (55%), Hampton, Virginia (53%), Newark, Nueva Jersey (53%), Mobile, Alabama (53%), Cleveland, Ohio (52%) y Brockton, Massachusetts (51%).
El condado de Claiborne, Mississippi, es el condado con mayor población negra de EE. UU., con un 87 % de población negra en 2020. El condado de Cook, Illinois, tiene la mayor población negra de EE. UU., con 1.185.601 residentes negros en 2020.
La comunidad más próspera del país con una mayoría afroamericana reside en View Park–Windsor Hills, California , con un ingreso familiar medio anual de $159,618 y un precio medio de vivienda de aproximadamente $1.5 millones en 2025. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] Otras comunidades mayoritariamente prósperas y afroamericanas incluyen el condado de Prince George (es decir , Mitchellville , Woodmore , Upper Marlboro ) y el condado de Charles en Maryland, [ 117 ] el condado de DeKalb (es decir , Stonecrest , Lithonia , Smoke Rise ) y South Fulton en Georgia, el condado de Charles City en Virginia, Baldwin Hills en California, Hillcrest y Uniondale en Nueva York, y Cedar Hill , DeSoto y Missouri City en Texas. Además, hay una presencia negra próspera significativa en los suburbios del sur de Chicago del condado de Cook, Illinois . Un informe de la Asociación Nacional de Agentes Inmobiliarios (NAREB) indicó que cinco de los diez municipios principales del país (con al menos 500 hogares negros) que registraban las tasas más altas de propiedad de vivienda entre la población negra se encontraban en esta área , incluyendo Olympia Fields , South Holland , Flossmoor , Matteson y Lynwood . [ 118 ] En 2006, el condado de Queens, Nueva York, fue el único condado con una población de 65 000 o más donde los afroamericanos tenían un ingreso familiar medio más alto que los estadounidenses blancos. [ 119 ]
Seatack, Virginia, es actualmente la comunidad afroamericana más antigua de los Estados Unidos. [ 120 ] Sobrevive hoy con una comunidad cívica vibrante y activa. [ 121 ]
Educación

Durante la esclavitud, se promulgaron en Estados Unidos leyes contra la alfabetización que prohibían la educación a las personas negras. Los dueños de esclavos veían la alfabetización como una amenaza para la institución de la esclavitud. Como afirmaba un estatuto de Carolina del Norte: «Enseñar a los esclavos a leer y escribir tiende a despertar insatisfacción en sus mentes y a producir insurrección y rebelión ». [ 122 ]
Cuando finalmente se abolió la esclavitud en 1865, los sistemas de educación pública se expandieron por todo el país. Para 1870, alrededor de setenta y cuatro instituciones en el sur ofrecían algún tipo de educación superior para estudiantes afroamericanos. Para 1900, más de cien programas en estas escuelas brindaban capacitación a profesionales negros, incluidos maestros. Muchos de los estudiantes de la Universidad de Fisk, incluido el joven W.E.B. Du Bois , daban clases durante los veranos para financiar sus estudios. [ 123 ]
Los afroamericanos estaban muy preocupados por brindar una educación de calidad a sus hijos, pero la supremacía blanca limitaba su capacidad para participar en la formulación de políticas educativas a nivel político. Los gobiernos estatales pronto tomaron medidas para socavar su ciudadanía restringiendo su derecho al voto. A finales de la década de 1870, los negros fueron privados del derecho al voto y segregados en todo el sur de Estados Unidos. [ 124 ] Los políticos blancos de Misisipi y otros estados retuvieron recursos financieros y suministros a las escuelas para negros. Sin embargo, la presencia de maestros negros y su compromiso con sus comunidades, tanto dentro como fuera del aula, aseguraron que los estudiantes negros tuvieran acceso a la educación a pesar de estas limitaciones externas. [ 125 ] [ 126 ]

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , las demandas de unidad y tolerancia racial en el frente interno propiciaron la creación del primer programa de estudios de historia afroamericana del país. [ 127 ] Por ejemplo, a principios de la década de 1940, Madeline Morgan, una maestra afroamericana de las escuelas públicas de Chicago, creó un programa de estudios para alumnos de primero a octavo grado que destacaba las contribuciones de las personas afroamericanas a la historia de los Estados Unidos. Al finalizar la guerra, la Junta de Educación de Chicago redujo el estatus del programa de estudios de obligatorio a opcional. [ 128 ]
Antes de la década de 1970, las escuelas predominantemente negras para estudiantes desde jardín de infantes hasta el duodécimo grado eran comunes en todo Estados Unidos. Sin embargo, para 1972, los esfuerzos de desegregación hicieron que solo el 25 % de los estudiantes negros estuvieran en escuelas con más del 90 % de estudiantes no blancos. Desde entonces, una tendencia hacia la resegregación afectó a comunidades en todo el país: para 2011, 2,9 millones de estudiantes afroamericanos estaban en escuelas con una abrumadora mayoría de estudiantes de minorías, incluyendo el 53 % de los estudiantes negros en distritos escolares que anteriormente estaban bajo órdenes de desegregación. [ 129 ] [ 130 ]
Todavía en 1947, se consideraba que aproximadamente un tercio de los afroamericanos mayores de 65 años carecían de la alfabetización necesaria para leer y escribir sus propios nombres. Para 1969, el analfabetismo, tal como se había definido tradicionalmente, se había erradicado en gran medida entre los afroamericanos más jóvenes. [ 131 ]

Entre 1995 y 2009, la matrícula universitaria de estudiantes de primer año para afroamericanos aumentó un 73 por ciento y solo un 15 por ciento para blancos. [ 132 ] Las mujeres negras están matriculadas en la universidad más que cualquier otro grupo racial y de género, liderando a todos con un 9,7% matriculado según el censo de EE. UU. de 2011. [ 133 ] [ 134 ] La tasa promedio de graduación de la escuela secundaria de los negros en los Estados Unidos ha aumentado constantemente hasta el 71% en 2013. [ 135 ] Separar esta estadística en partes componentes muestra que varía mucho dependiendo del estado y el distrito escolar examinado. El 38% de los hombres negros se graduaron en el estado de Nueva York, pero en Maine el 97% se graduó y superó la tasa de graduación de los hombres blancos en 11 puntos porcentuales. [ 136 ] En gran parte del sureste de los Estados Unidos y algunas partes del suroeste de los Estados Unidos la tasa de graduación de los hombres blancos fue de hecho inferior al 70% como en Florida donde el 62% de los hombres blancos se graduaron de la escuela secundaria. Examinar distritos escolares específicos pinta un panorama aún más complejo. En el distrito escolar de Detroit, la tasa de graduación de los hombres negros fue del 20% pero del 7% para los hombres blancos. En el distrito escolar de la ciudad de Nueva York el 28% de los hombres negros se gradúan de la escuela secundaria en comparación con el 57% de los hombres blancos. En el condado de Newark el 76% de los hombres negros se graduaron en comparación con el 67% de los hombres blancos. Se ha producido una mejora académica adicional en 2015. Aproximadamente el 23% de todos los negros tienen títulos de licenciatura. En 1988, el 21% de los blancos había obtenido un título de licenciatura frente al 11% de los negros. En 2015, el 23% de los negros había obtenido una licenciatura frente al 36% de los blancos. [ 137 ] Los negros nacidos en el extranjero, que representan el 9% de la población negra, lograron avances aún mayores. Superan a los negros nacidos en el país por 10 puntos porcentuales. [ 137 ]
College Board , que administra los programas oficiales de nivel universitario de colocación avanzada (AP) en las escuelas secundarias estadounidenses, ha recibido críticas en los últimos años porque sus planes de estudio se han centrado demasiado en la historia eurocéntrica . [ 138 ] En 2020, College Board reformuló algunos planes de estudio entre los cursos basados en historia para reflejar mejor la diáspora africana . [ 139 ] En 2021, College Board anunció que pondría en marcha un programa piloto de un curso AP de Estudios Afroamericanos entre 2022 y 2024. El curso se lanzó oficialmente en agosto de 2024. [ 140 ] [ 141 ]
En junio de 2023, la Corte Suprema puso fin a la acción afirmativa basada en la raza en las universidades estadounidenses . Se cree que esta histórica decisión de la Corte Suprema contribuyó a una disminución en la matrícula de afroamericanos en las universidades más selectivas y prestigiosas del país, donde los solicitantes afroamericanos suelen tener, en promedio, puntuaciones más bajas en las pruebas estandarizadas y promedios de calificaciones (GPA) en comparación con el conjunto general de solicitantes. En respuesta, muchas de las universidades históricamente negras (HBCU) más destacadas del país han reportado un aumento significativo en las solicitudes y la matrícula. [ 142 ] [ 143 ] [ 144 ] [ 145 ]
Un poco más de 250.000 estudiantes afroamericanos de la promoción de 2025 de la escuela secundaria realizaron el Examen de Aptitud Académica (SAT), lo que representa el 13% de los examinados. Los estudiantes afroamericanos obtuvieron una puntuación promedio de 904, inferior al promedio nacional de 1.209. Los estudiantes asiático-americanos obtuvieron el promedio más alto, con 1.229. [ 146 ]
Según un estudio de 2025, los afroamericanos tienen la deuda estudiantil promedio más alta . Los afroamericanos con títulos de licenciatura deben un promedio de $52,726 en préstamos estudiantiles. Casi el 70% de los afroamericanos solicitaron un préstamo para financiar su educación universitaria. [ 147 ] Las mujeres afroamericanas, en particular, tienen la deuda estudiantil promedio más alta del país. [ 148 ]
Colegios y universidades históricamente para personas negras
Las universidades históricamente negras (HBCU, por sus siglas en inglés), fundadas cuando las instituciones de educación superior segregadas no admitían a afroamericanos, siguen prosperando y educando a estudiantes de todas las razas en la actualidad. Existen 107 HBCU, que representan el tres por ciento de las universidades del país, la mayoría establecidas en el sureste . [ 149 ] [ 150 ] Las HBCU han sido en gran medida responsables del establecimiento y la expansión de la clase media afroamericana al brindar más oportunidades profesionales a los afroamericanos. [ 151 ] [ 152 ]
situación económica
La disparidad económica entre las razas en los EE. UU. ha mejorado marginalmente desde el fin de la esclavitud. En 1863, dos años antes de la emancipación, las personas negras poseían el 0,5 por ciento de la riqueza nacional, mientras que en 2019 era poco más del 1,5 por ciento. [ 153 ] La disparidad racial en las tasas de pobreza se ha reducido desde la era de los derechos civiles, con una tasa de pobreza entre los afroamericanos que disminuyó del 24,7 % en 2004 al 18,8 % en 2020, en comparación con el 10,5 % para todos los estadounidenses. [ 154 ] [ 155 ] La pobreza está asociada con mayores tasas de estrés y disolución matrimonial, problemas de salud física y mental , discapacidad , déficits cognitivos , bajo nivel educativo y delincuencia. [ 156 ]
Los afroamericanos tienen una larga y diversa historia de propiedad empresarial. Si bien se desconoce el primer negocio afroamericano, se cree que los esclavos capturados en África Occidental establecieron empresas comerciales como vendedores ambulantes y artesanos especializados ya en el siglo XVII. Alrededor de 1900, Booker T. Washington se convirtió en el defensor más famoso de los negocios afroamericanos. Su crítico y rival, W.E.B. Du Bois, también elogió los negocios como un vehículo para el progreso de los afroamericanos. [ 157 ]
Los afroamericanos tenían un poder adquisitivo combinado de más de 1,6 billones de dólares en 2021, un aumento del 171 % con respecto a su poder adquisitivo en 2000, pero con un crecimiento significativamente inferior al de los latinos y asiáticos estadounidenses en el mismo período (con un 288 % y un 383 %, respectivamente; a modo de referencia, el crecimiento general de EE. UU. fue del 144 % en el mismo período); sin embargo, el patrimonio neto de los afroamericanos se había reducido un 14 % el año anterior a pesar del fuerte crecimiento de los precios de las propiedades y del S&P 500. En 2002, las empresas propiedad de afroamericanos representaban 1,2 millones de las 23 millones de empresas de EE. UU. [ 159 ] A partir de 2011Las empresas propiedad de afroamericanos representan aproximadamente dos millones de empresas en los EE. UU . [ 160 ] Las empresas propiedad de personas negras experimentaron el mayor crecimiento en número de empresas entre las minorías de 2002 a 2011. [ 160 ]
El veinticinco por ciento de los negros tenían ocupaciones de cuello blanco (gestión, profesiones liberales y campos relacionados) en 2000, en comparación con el 33,6% del total de los estadounidenses. [ 161 ] [ 162 ] En 2001, más de la mitad de los hogares afroamericanos de parejas casadas ganaban 50 000 dólares o más. [ 162 ] Aunque en ese mismo año los afroamericanos estaban sobrerrepresentados entre los pobres del país, esto estaba directamente relacionado con el porcentaje desproporcionado de familias afroamericanas encabezadas por mujeres solteras; dichas familias son colectivamente más pobres, independientemente de su origen étnico. [ 162 ]
En 2006, el ingreso medio de los hombres afroamericanos era mayor que el de las mujeres negras y no negras en general, y en todos los niveles educativos. [ 163 ] [ 164 ] [ 165 ] [ 166 ] [ 167 ] Al mismo tiempo, entre los hombres estadounidenses, las disparidades de ingresos eran significativas; el ingreso medio de los hombres afroamericanos era aproximadamente 76 centavos por cada dólar de sus homólogos estadounidenses de ascendencia europea, aunque la brecha se redujo un poco con el aumento del nivel educativo. [ 163 ] [ 168 ]
En general, los ingresos medios de los hombres afroamericanos eran 72 centavos por cada dólar que ganaban sus homólogos asiático-americanos, y 1,17 dólares por cada dólar que ganaban los hombres hispanos. [ 163 ] [ 166 ] [ 169 ] Por otro lado, para 2006, entre las mujeres estadounidenses con educación postsecundaria, las mujeres afroamericanas habían logrado avances significativos; el ingreso medio de las mujeres afroamericanas era mayor que el de sus homólogas asiáticas, europeas e hispanas con al menos algún nivel de estudios universitarios. [ 164 ] [ 165 ] [ 170 ]
El sector público estadounidense es la principal fuente de empleo para los afroamericanos. [ 171 ] Durante el período 2008-2010, el 21,2 % de todos los trabajadores negros eran empleados públicos, en comparación con el 16,3 % de los trabajadores no negros. [ 171 ] Tanto antes como después del inicio de la Gran Recesión , los afroamericanos tenían un 30 % más de probabilidades que otros trabajadores de estar empleados en el sector público. [ 171 ] El sector público también es una fuente crucial de empleos bien remunerados para los afroamericanos. Tanto para hombres como para mujeres, el salario medio percibido por los empleados negros es significativamente mayor en el sector público que en otras industrias. [ 171 ]
En 1999, el ingreso medio de las familias afroamericanas era de $33,255 en comparación con los $53,356 de los estadounidenses de origen europeo. En tiempos de dificultades económicas para la nación, los afroamericanos sufren de manera desproporcionada la pérdida de empleo y el subempleo , siendo la clase baja negra la más afectada. La frase "los últimos en ser contratados y los primeros en ser despedidos" se refleja en las cifras de desempleo de la Oficina de Estadísticas Laborales . A nivel nacional, la tasa de desempleo de los afroamericanos en octubre de 2008 fue del 11.1%, [ 172 ] mientras que la tasa nacional fue del 6.5%. [ 173 ] En 2007, el ingreso promedio de los afroamericanos fue de aproximadamente $34,000, en comparación con los $55,000 de los blancos. [ 174 ] Los afroamericanos experimentan una tasa de desempleo más alta que la población general. [ 175 ]
La brecha de ingresos entre familias negras y blancas también es significativa. En 2005, los negros empleados ganaban el 65% de los salarios de los blancos, frente al 82% en 1975. [ 154 ] El New York Times informó en 2006 que en Queens , Nueva York, el ingreso medio entre las familias afroamericanas superaba al de las familias blancas, lo que el periódico atribuyó al crecimiento en el número de familias negras con dos padres. Señaló que Queens era el único condado con más de 65.000 residentes donde esto era cierto. [ 119 ] En 2011, se informó que el 72% de los bebés negros nacieron de madres solteras . [ 176 ] La tasa de pobreza entre las familias negras monoparentales era del 39,5% en 2005, según Walter E. Williams , mientras que era del 9,9% entre las familias negras con parejas casadas. Entre las familias blancas, las tasas respectivas eran del 26,4% y del 6% en pobreza. [ 177 ]
En conjunto, los afroamericanos participan más en el proceso político estadounidense que otros grupos minoritarios en Estados Unidos, como lo demuestra el mayor nivel de registro de votantes y participación en elecciones entre estos grupos en 2004. [ 178 ] Los afroamericanos también tienen el mayor nivel de representación en el Congreso de cualquier grupo minoritario en Estados Unidos. [ 179 ]
Propiedad de vivienda entre afroamericanos

La propiedad de vivienda en los EE. UU. es el indicador más fuerte de estabilidad financiera y el principal activo que la mayoría de los estadounidenses utiliza para generar riqueza. Los afroamericanos continúan rezagados con respecto a otros grupos raciales en cuanto a la propiedad de vivienda. [ 181 ] En el primer trimestre de 2021, el 45,1 % de los afroamericanos eran propietarios de sus viviendas, en comparación con el 65,3 % de todos los estadounidenses. [ 182 ] La tasa de propiedad de vivienda entre los afroamericanos se ha mantenido relativamente estable desde la década de 1970 a pesar de un aumento en las leyes y protecciones de vivienda contra la discriminación . [ 183 ] La tasa de propiedad de vivienda entre los afroamericanos alcanzó su punto máximo en 2004 con un 49,7 %. [ 184 ]
El joven blanco promedio que abandona la escuela secundaria todavía tiene una probabilidad ligeramente mayor de ser propietario de una vivienda que el graduado universitario afroamericano promedio, generalmente debido a índices de deuda-ingresos o puntajes crediticios desfavorables entre la mayoría de los graduados universitarios afroamericanos. [ 185 ] [ 186 ] Desde el año 2000, el rápido aumento de los costos de la vivienda en la mayoría de las ciudades ha hecho aún más difícil que la tasa de propiedad de vivienda de los afroamericanos en los EE. UU. crezca significativamente y alcance más del 50 % por primera vez en la historia. De 2000 a 2022, el precio medio de la vivienda en los EE. UU. creció un 160 %, superando el crecimiento promedio anual de los ingresos familiares en ese mismo período, que solo creció alrededor del 30 %. [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] Carolina del Sur es el estado con la mayor cantidad de propietarios de vivienda afroamericanos, con aproximadamente el 55 % de los afroamericanos que poseen sus propias viviendas. [ 190 ] [ 191 ]
Según los datos, las personas negras, que representan el 12% de la población total de Estados Unidos, constituyen el 32% de todas las personas sin hogar. [ 192 ]
Política
Desde mediados del siglo XX, una gran mayoría de afroamericanos apoya al Partido Demócrata . En las elecciones presidenciales de 2024 , el 86 % de los votantes afroamericanos apoyó a la demócrata Kamala Harris , mientras que el 13 % apoyó al republicano Donald Trump . [ 193 ] Si bien existe un grupo de presión afroamericano en la política exterior, no ha tenido el mismo impacto que las organizaciones afroamericanas en la política interna. [ 194 ]
Muchos afroamericanos fueron excluidos de la política electoral en las décadas posteriores al fin de la Reconstrucción. Para aquellos que pudieron participar, hasta el New Deal , los afroamericanos apoyaban al Partido Republicano porque fue el presidente republicano Abraham Lincoln quien contribuyó a otorgar la libertad a los esclavos estadounidenses; en aquel entonces, los republicanos y los demócratas representaban los intereses regionales del Norte y del Sur , respectivamente, más que una ideología específica, y tanto conservadores como liberales estaban representados por igual en ambos partidos.
La tendencia de los afroamericanos a votar por los demócratas se remonta a la década de 1930, durante la Gran Depresión , cuando el programa New Deal de Franklin D. Roosevelt brindó alivio económico a los afroamericanos. La coalición del New Deal de Roosevelt convirtió al Partido Demócrata en una organización de la clase trabajadora y sus aliados liberales, independientemente de la región. El voto afroamericano se volvió aún más sólido a favor de los demócratas cuando los presidentes demócratas John F. Kennedy y Lyndon B. Johnson impulsaron la legislación de derechos civiles durante la década de 1960. En 1960, casi un tercio de los afroamericanos votó por el republicano Richard Nixon . [ 195 ]
El conservadurismo ha ido en aumento entre los afroamericanos, especialmente desde las elecciones presidenciales de 2020. En las elecciones de 2024, Trump obtuvo un porcentaje ligeramente mayor del voto afroamericano en comparación con su desempeño en 2020. [ 196 ] [ 197 ] [ 198 ]
himno nacional negro

« Lift Every Voice and Sing » se conoce a menudo como el himno nacional negro en los Estados Unidos. [ 199 ] En 1919, la Asociación Nacional para el Progreso de las Personas de Color (NAACP) lo denominó «himno nacional negro» por su poder para expresar un clamor de liberación y afirmación para el pueblo afroamericano. [ 200 ]
Religión
- Protestantes negros (59,0%)
- Protestante evangélico (15,0%)
- Protestantes tradicionales (4,00%)
- Católico romano (5,00%)
- Testigos de Jehová (1,00%)
- Otros cristianos (1,00%)
- Musulmán (1,00%)
- Otras religiones (1,00%)
- No afiliados (11,0%)
- Ateo o agnóstico (2,00%)

The majority of African Americans are Protestant, many of whom follow the historically Black churches.[202] The term Black church refers to churches which minister to predominantly African American congregations. Black congregations were first established by freed slaves at the end of the 17th century, and later when slavery was abolished more African Americans were allowed to create a unique form of Christianity that was culturally influenced by African spiritual traditions.[203] One of these early African American Christian cultural traditions in the Black Church is the Watchnight service, also called Freedom's Eve, where African American congregations all over the nation come together on New Year's Eve through New Year's morning in remembrance of the eve and New Year of their emancipation, sharing testimonies, being baptized and partaking in praise and worship.[204]
According to a 2007 survey, more than half of the African American population are part of the historically Black churches.[205] The largest Protestant denomination among African Americans is the Baptists,[206] distributed mainly in four denominations, the largest being the National Baptist Convention, USA and the National Baptist Convention of America.[207] The second-largest is the Methodists,[208] the largest organizations of which are the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church.[207][209]
Pentecostals are distributed among several different religious bodies, with the Church of God in Christ as the largest among them by far.[207] About 16% of African American Christians are members of White Protestant communions;[208] these denominations (which include the United Church of Christ) mostly have a 2–3% African American membership.[210] There are also large numbers of Catholics, constituting 5% of the African American population.[205] Of the total number of Jehovah's Witnesses, 22% are Black.[202]
Some African Americans follow Islam. Historically, between 15 and 30% of enslaved Africans brought to the Americas were Muslims, but most of these Africans were converted to Christianity during the era of American slavery.[211] During the twentieth century, some African Americans converted to Islam, mainly through the influence of Black nationalist groups that preached with distinctive Islamic practices; including the Moorish Science Temple of America, and the largest organization, the Nation of Islam, founded in the 1930s, which attracted at least 20,000 people by 1963.[212][213] Prominent members included activist Malcolm X and boxer Muhammad Ali.[214]

Malcolm X is considered the first person to start the movement among African Americans towards mainstream Islam, after he left the Nation and made the pilgrimage to Mecca.[215] In 1975, Warith Deen Mohammed, the son of Elijah Muhammad took control of the Nation after his father's death and guided the majority of its members to orthodox Islam.[216]
African American Muslims constitute 20% of the total US Muslim population,[217] the majority are Sunni or orthodox Muslims, some of these identify under the community of W. Deen Mohammed.[218][219] The Nation of Islam led by Louis Farrakhan has a membership ranging from 20,000 to 50,000 members.[220]
There is also a small but growing group of African American Jews, making up less than 0.5% of African Americans or about 2% of the Jewish population in the United States. The majority of African-American Jews are Ashkenazi, while smaller numbers identify as Sephardi, Mizrahi, or other.[221][222][223] Many African-American Jews are affiliated with denominations such as the Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, or Orthodox branches of Judaism, but the majority identify as "Jews of no religion", commonly known as secular Jews. A significant number of people who identify themselves as "Black Jews" are affiliated with syncretic religious groups, largely the Black Hebrew Israelites, whose beliefs include the claim that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Israelites.[224] Jews of all races typically do not accept Black Hebrew Israelites as Jews, in part because they are usually not Jewish according to Jewish law,[225] and in part because these groups are sometimes associated with antisemitism.[226][227] African-American Jews have criticized the Black Hebrew Israelites, regarding the movement as primarily composed of Black non-Jews who have appropriated Black-Jewish identity.[228]
In the 2010s, confirmed atheists were less than one half of one percent, similar to numbers for Hispanics.[229][230][231]
In 2025, a Pew Research Center study found that, among Black Americans, Christian affiliation has declined in recent years. The share of Black adults identifying as Christian fell from 85% in 2007 to 79% in 2014 and 73% in 2021, mirroring a broader decline in Christianity in the United States. However, Black adults remain more likely than U.S. adults overall to identify as Christian (73% vs. 62%). About 4% of Black adults identify with non-Christian religions, mostly Islam, while 22% are religiously unaffiliated ("nones"), including 3% atheist or agnostic and 19% identifying as "nothing in particular." 58% say religion is very important in their lives, 64% pray daily, and 57% attend religious services at least monthly, whether in person or online. By comparison, about half or fewer adults in other racial or ethnic groups report that religion is very important or that they pray daily, and even smaller shares attend services monthly. Religiosity among Black Americans also varies by age. 39% of Black adults aged 65 and older describe themselves as very religious, compared with 21% of those under 30. This age pattern is similar to that observed among White and Hispanic Americans, although Black adults of all ages are more likely than other groups to describe themselves as very religious.[2]
Sexuality
According to a Gallup survey, 4.6% of Black or African Americans self-identified as LGBT in 2016,[232] while the total portion of American adults in all ethnic groups identifying as LGBT was 4.1% in 2016.[232] African American women are more likely than African American men to openly identify as LGBT.[233]
Health
General health
The life expectancy for Black men in 2008 was 70.8 years.[234] Life expectancy for Black women was 77.5 years in 2008.[234] In 1900, when information on Black life expectancy started being collated, a Black man could expect to live to 32.5 years and a Black woman 33.5 years.[234] In 1900, White men lived an average of 46.3 years and White women lived an average of 48.3 years.[234] African American life expectancy at birth is persistently five to seven years lower than European Americans.[235] Black men have shorter lifespans than any other group in the US besides Native American men.[236]
Black people have higher rates of obesity, diabetes, and hypertension than the US average.[234] For adult Black men, the rate of obesity was 31.6% in 2010.[237] For adult Black women, the rate of obesity was 41.2% in 2010.[237] African Americans have higher rates of mortality than any other racial or ethnic group for eight of the top ten causes of death.[238] In 2013, among men, Black men had the highest rate of getting cancer, followed by White, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander (A/PI), and American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) men. Among women, White women had the highest rate of getting cancer, followed by Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native women.[239] African Americans also have higher prevalence and incidence of Alzheimer's disease compared to the overall average.[240][241]
Black women lead the nation in abortions. According to a 2022 report, Black women made up 40% of abortions despite making up 13% of the U.S. woman population.[242][243] African Americans are more likely than White Americans to die due to health-related problems developed by alcoholism. Alcohol abuse is the main contributor to the top three causes of death among African Americans.[244]
In December 2020, African Americans were less likely to be vaccinated against COVID-19 due to mistrust in the US medical system. From 2021 to 2022, there was an increase in African Americans who became vaccinated.[245][246][247] Still, in 2022, COVID-19 complications became the third leading cause of death for African Americans.[248]
Violence is a major problem within the African American community.[249][250] A report from the US Department of Justice states "In 2005, homicide victimization rates for Blacks were more than six times as high as the rates for Whites".[251] The report also found that "94% of Black victims were killed by Blacks."[251] Of the nearly 20,000 recorded US homicides in 2022, African Americans made up the majority of offenders and victims despite making up less than 15% of the population.[252] In 2024, all of the five most dangerous US cities have a significant Black population and highly concerning Black-on-Black violent crime rate.[253] Black males age 15–44 are the only race/sex category for which homicide is a top-five cause of death.[236] Black women are three times more likely to be killed by an intimate partner than White women.[249] Black children are more than three times as likely to die due to parental abuse and neglect than White children.[254]
Sexual health
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, African Americans have higher rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) compared to Whites, with five times the rates of syphilis and chlamydia, and 7.5 times the rate of gonorrhea.[255]
The disproportionately high incidence of HIV/AIDS among African Americans has been attributed to homophobic influences, lack of condom usage, and lack of proper healthcare.[256] The prevalence of HIV/AIDS among Black men is seven times higher than the prevalence for White men, and Black men are more than nine times as likely to die from HIV/AIDS-related illness than White men.[236] The prevalence of HIV/AIDS among Black women is 20 times higher than White women, and Black women are more than 15 times as likely to die from HIV/AIDS-related illness than White women.[257][258]
Mental health
African Americans have several barriers for accessing mental health services. Counseling has been frowned upon and distant in utility and proximity to many people in the African American community. In 2004, a qualitative research study explored the disconnect with African Americans and mental health. The study was conducted as a semi-structured discussion which allowed the focus group to express their opinions and life experiences. The results revealed a couple key variables that create barriers for many African American communities to seek mental health services such as the stigma, lack of four important necessities; trust, affordability, cultural understanding and impersonal services.[259]
Historically, many African American communities did not seek counseling because religion was a part of the family values.[260] African Americans who have a faith background are more likely to seek prayer as a coping mechanism for mental issues rather than seeking professional mental health services.[259] In 2015 a study concluded, African Americans with high value in religion are less likely to utilize mental health services compared to those who have low value in religion.[261]
In the United States, counseling approaches are based on the experience of White Americans and do not fit within the African American culture. African American families tend to resolve concerns within the family, and it is viewed by the family as a strength. On the other hand, when African Americans seek counseling, they face a social backlash and are criticized. They may be labeled "crazy", viewed as weak, and their pride is diminished.[259] Because of this, many African Americans instead seek mentorship within communities they trust.
Terminology is another barrier in relation to African Americans and mental health. There is more stigma on the term psychotherapy versus counseling. In one study, psychotherapy is associated with mental illness whereas counseling approaches problem-solving, guidance and help.[259] More African Americans seek assistance when it is called counseling and not psychotherapy because it is more welcoming within the culture and community.[262] Counselors are encouraged to be aware of such barriers for the well-being of African American clients. Without cultural competency training in health care, many African Americans go unheard and misunderstood.[259]
In 2021, African Americans had the third highest suicide rate trailing American Indians/Alaska Natives and White Americans. However, African Americans had the second highest increase of its suicide rate from 2011 to 2021, growing 58%.[263] As of 2024, suicide is the second leading cause of death among African-Americans between the ages of 15 and 24, with Black men being four times more likely to kill themselves than Black women.[264]
Genetics
Genome-wide studies

Recent studies of African Americans using genetic testing have found ancestry to vary by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2–82.1% Sub-Saharan African, 16.7–24% European, and 0.8–1.2% Native American genetic ancestry, with large variation between individuals.[266][267][268] Commercial testing services have reported similar variation, with ranges from 0.6 to 2 percent Native American, 19 to 29 percent European, and 65 to 80 percent Sub-Saharan African ancestry.[269]
According to a genome-wide study by Bryc et al. (2009), the mixed ancestry of African Americans in varying ratios came about as the result of sexual contact between West/Central Africans (more frequently females) and Europeans (more frequently males). This can be understood as being the result of enslaved African American females being raped by White males.[270] Consequently, the 365 African Americans in their sample have a genome-wide average of 78.1% West African ancestry and 18.5% European ancestry, with large variation among individuals (ranging from 99% to 1% West African ancestry). The West African ancestral component in African Americans is most similar to that in present-day speakers from the non-Bantu branches of the Niger-Congo family.[266][note 2]
Correspondingly, Montinaro et al. (2014) observed that around 50% of the overall ancestry of African Americans traces comes from a population similar to the Niger-Congo-speaking Yoruba of southern Nigeria and southern Benin, reflecting the centrality of this West African region in the Atlantic slave trade. The next most frequent ancestral component found among African Americans was derived from Great Britain, in keeping with historical records. It constitutes a little over 10% of their overall ancestry and is most similar to the Northwest European ancestral component also carried by Barbadians.[272] Zakharia et al. (2009) found a similar proportion of Yoruba-like ancestry in their African American samples, with a minority also drawn from Mandenka and Bantu populations. Additionally, the researchers observed an average European ancestry of 21.9%, again with significant variation between individuals.[265] Bryc et al. (2009) note that populations from other parts of the continent may also constitute adequate proxies for the ancestors of some African American individuals; namely, ancestral populations from Guinea Bissau, Senegal and Sierra Leone in West Africa and Angola in Southern Africa.[266] An individual African American person can have over fifteen African ethnic groups in their genetic makeup alone due to the slave trade covering such vast areas.[273]
Altogether, genetic studies suggest that African Americans are a genetically diverse people. According to DNA analysis led in 2006 by Penn State geneticist Mark D. Shriver, around 58 percent of African Americans have at least 12.5% European ancestry (equivalent to one European great-grandparent and their forebears), 19.6 percent of African Americans have at least 25% European ancestry (equivalent to one European grandparent and their forebears), and one percent of African Americans have at least 50% European ancestry (equivalent to one European parent and their forebears).[274][275] According to Shriver, around five percent of African Americans also have at least 12.5% Native American ancestry (equivalent to one Native American great-grandparent and their forebears).[276][277] Research suggests that Native American ancestry among people who identify as African American is a result of relationships that occurred soon after slave ships arrived in the American colonies, and European ancestry is of more recent origin, often from the decades before the Civil War.[278]
Y-DNA
Africans bearing the E-V38 (E1b1a) likely traversed across the Sahara, from east to west, approximately 19,000 years ago.[279]E-M2 (E1b1a1) likely originated in West Africa or Central Africa.[280] According to a Y-DNA study by Sims et al. (2007), the majority (≈60%) of African Americans belong to various subclades of the E-M2 (E1b1a1, formerly E3a) paternal haplogroup. This is the most common genetic paternal lineage found today among West/Central African males and is also a signature of the historical Bantu migrations. The next most frequent Y-DNA haplogroup observed among African Americans is the R1b clade, which around 15% of African Americans carry. This lineage is most common today among Northwestern European males. The remaining African Americans mainly belong to the paternal haplogroup I (≈7%), which is also frequent in Northwestern Europe.[281]
mtDNA
According to an mtDNA study by Salas et al. (2005), the maternal lineages of African Americans are most similar to haplogroups that are today especially common in West Africa (>55%), followed closely by West-Central Africa and Southwestern Africa (<41%). The characteristic West African haplogroups L1b, L2b,c,d, and L3b,d and West-Central African haplogroups L1c and L3e in particular occur at high frequencies among African Americans. As with the paternal DNA of African Americans, contributions from other parts of the continent to their maternal gene pool are insignificant.[282]
Racism and social status
Formal political, economic and social discrimination against minorities has been present throughout American history. Leland T. Saito, Associate Professor of Sociology and American Studies & Ethnicity at the University of Southern California, writes, "Political rights have been circumscribed by race, class and gender since the founding of the United States, when the right to vote was restricted to White men of property. Throughout the history of the United States, race has been used by Whites for legitimizing and creating difference and social, economic and political exclusion."[64]
Those who economically gained the most from slavery were the planter class, owners of large-scale plantations where large numbers of enslaved Africans were held captive and forced to produce crops to create wealth for a White elite.[283] Having a prominent role in politics with eight presidents owning slaves while in office, upon the end of the Civil War the planter class kept control of their land and remained politically influential, with the London School of Economics stating, "this persistence in "de facto power" in turn allowed them to block economic reforms, disenfranchise Black voters, and restrict the mobility of workers."[284]
Although they have gained a greater degree of social equality since the civil rights movement, African Americans have remained stagnant economically, which has hindered their ability to break into the middle class and beyond. As of 2020, the racial wealth gap between Whites and Blacks remains as large as it was in 1968, with the typical net worth of a White household equivalent to that of 11.5 Black households.[285] Despite this, African Americans have increased employment rates and gained representation in the highest levels of American government in the post–civil rights era.[286] However, widespread racism remains an issue that continues to undermine the development of social status.[286][287]
Economically, of all the racially Black ethnic groups on the globe, African Americans are the wealthiest and most successful, with one in every fifty African American families being millionaires.[288] This equates in 2023 to approximately 1.79 million African American millionaires in the United States,[289][290] which is more than the number of millionaires in any racially Black country, and many other countries, around the world.
Policing and criminal justice
In the US, which has the largest per-capita prison population in the world, African Americans are overrepresented as the second-largest population of prison inmates (38%) in 2023, coming second to Whites, who made up 57% of the prison population.[291] According to the National Registry of Exonerations, Blacks are roughly 7.5 times more likely to be wrongfully convicted of murder in the US than Whites.[292] In 2012, the New York City Police Department detained people more than 500,000 times under the city's stop-and-frisk law. Of the total detained, 55% were African-Americans, while Black people made up 20% of the city's population.[293]

African American males are more likely to be killed by police when compared to other races.[294] This is one of the factors that led to the creation of the Black Lives Matter movement in 2013.[295] A historical issue in the US where women have weaponized their White privilege in the country by reporting on Black people, often instigating racial violence,[296][297] difficult White women—who have been given a different name over the centuries by African Americans—calling the police on Black people became widely publicized in 2020.[298][299] According to The Guardian, "The specter of Karen persisted as Black Lives Matter protests and civil unrest spread around the country following Floyd's murder and reckonings with racism began to roil institutions, toppling careers as well as statues".[300]
In the aftermath of the peak Black Lives Matter protests and widespread police reform efforts in the early 2020s, crime rates surged across the nation, especially in predominantly Black neighborhoods. Many cities experienced near-record or record levels of violence and other criminal activity. As a result, numerous municipalities scaled back police reform initiatives and increased funding for law enforcement.[301][302][303]
Social issues
After over 50 years, marriage rates for all Americans began to decline while divorce rates and out-of-wedlock births have climbed.[304] These changes have been greatest among African Americans. After more than 70 years of racial parity Black marriage rates began to fall behind Whites.[304]Single-parent households have become most common, and according to US census figures released in January 2010, only 38% of Black children lived with both their parents.[305] In 2021, statistics show that over 80% marriages in the African American ethnic group marry within their ethnic group.[306]
Black children are overrepresented in the U.S. foster care system. In 2017, Black American children made up 14% of the children population but 22% of those in the foster care system.[307] Black American children are more than twice as likely to be placed in foster care than White American children.[308]

The first ever anti-miscegenation law was passed by the Maryland General Assembly in 1691, criminalizing interracial marriage.[309] In a speech in Charleston, Illinois in 1858, Abraham Lincoln stated, "I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people".[310] By the late 1800s, 38 US states had anti-miscegenation statutes.[309] By 1924, the ban on interracial marriage was still in force in 29 states.[309] While interracial marriage had been legal in California since 1948, in 1957 actor Sammy Davis Jr. faced a backlash for his involvement with White actress Kim Novak.[311]Harry Cohn, the president of Columbia Pictures, with whom Novak was under contract, gave in to his concerns that a racist backlash against the relationship could hurt the studio.[311] Davis briefly married Black dancer Loray White in 1958 to protect himself from mob violence.[311] Inebriated at the wedding ceremony, Davis despairingly said to his best friend, Arthur Silber Jr., "Why won't they let me live my life?" The couple never lived together, and commenced divorce proceedings in September 1958.[311] In 1958, officers in Virginia entered the home of Mildred and Richard Loving and dragged them out of bed for living together as an interracial couple, on the basis that "any white person intermarry with a colored person"—or vice versa—each party "shall be guilty of a felony" and face prison terms of five years.[309] In 1967 the law was ruled unconstitutional (via the 14th Amendment adopted in 1868) by the US Supreme Court in Loving v. Virginia.[309]
In 2008, Democrats overwhelmingly voted 70% against California Proposition 8, African Americans voted 58% in favor of it while 42% voted against Proposition 8.[312] On May 9, 2012, Barack Obama, the first Black president, became the first US president to support same-sex marriage. Since Obama's endorsement there has been a rapid growth in support for same-sex marriage among African Americans. As of 2012, 59% of African Americans support same-sex marriage, which is higher than support among the national average (53%) and White Americans (50%).[313]
Polls in North Carolina,[314]Pennsylvania,[315]Missouri,[316]Maryland,[317]Ohio,[318] Florida,[319] and Nevada[320] have also shown an increase in support for same sex marriage among African Americans. On November 6, 2012, Maryland, Maine, and Washington all voted for approve of same-sex marriage, along with Minnesota rejecting a constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage. Exit polls in Maryland show about 50% of African Americans voted for same-sex marriage, showing a vast evolution among African Americans on the issue and was crucial in helping pass same-sex marriage in Maryland.[321]
Black Americans hold far more conservative opinions on abortion, extramarital sex, and raising children out of wedlock than Democrats as a whole.[322] On financial issues, however, African Americans are in line with Democrats, generally supporting a more progressive tax structure to provide more government spending on social services.[323]
Political legacy

African Americans have fought in every war in the history of the United States.[324]
The gains made by African Americans in the civil rights movement and in the Black Power movement not only obtained certain rights for African Americans but changed American society in far-reaching and fundamentally important ways. Prior to the 1950s, Black Americans in the South were subject to de jure discrimination, or Jim Crow laws. They were often the victims of extreme cruelty and violence, sometimes resulting in deaths: by the post World War II era, African Americans became increasingly discontented with their long-standing inequality. In the words of Martin Luther King Jr., African Americans and their supporters challenged the nation to "rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed that all men are created equal ..."[325]
The civil rights movement marked an enormous change in American social, political, economic and civic life. It brought with it boycotts, sit-ins, nonviolent demonstrations and marches, court battles, bombings and other violence; prompted worldwide media coverage and intense public debate; forged enduring civic, economic and religious alliances; and disrupted and realigned the nation's two major political parties.
Over time, it has changed in fundamental ways the manner in which Blacks and Whites interact with and relate to one another. The movement resulted in the removal of codified, de jure racial segregation and discrimination from American life and law, and heavily influenced other groups and movements in struggles for civil rights and social equality within American society, including the Free Speech Movement, the disabled, the women's movement, and migrant workers. It also inspired the Native American rights movement, and in King's 1964 book Why We Can't Wait he wrote the US "was born in genocide when it embraced the doctrine that the original American, the Indian, was an inferior race."[326][327]
Media and coverage

Some activists and academics contend that American news media coverage of African American news, concerns, or dilemmas is inadequate,[328][329][330] or that the news media present distorted images of African Americans.[331]
To combat this, Robert L. Johnson founded Black Entertainment Television (BET), a network that targets young African Americans and urban audiences in the United States. Over the years, the network has aired such programming as rap and R&B music videos, urban-oriented movies and television series, and some public affairs programs. On Sunday mornings, BET would broadcast Christian programming; the network would also broadcast non-affiliated Christian programs during the early morning hours daily. According to Viacom, BET is now a global network that reaches households in the United States, Caribbean, Canada, and the United Kingdom.[332] The network has gone on to spawn several spin-off channels, including BET Her (originally launched as BET on Jazz).[333]
Another network targeting African Americans is TV One. TV One is owned by Urban One, founded and controlled by Catherine Hughes. Urban One is one of the nation's largest radio broadcasting companies and the largest African American-owned radio broadcasting company in the United States.[334]
In June 2009, NBC News launched a new website named TheGrio.[335] It is the first African American video news site that focuses on underrepresented stories in existing national news.[336]
Black-owned and oriented media outlets
- The Africa Channel – Dedicated to programming about African culture.
- aspireTV – a digital cable and satellite channel owned by businessman and former basketball player Magic Johnson.
- ATTV – an independent public affairs and educational channel.
- BET Media Group – The most prominent multimedia outlet targeting Afro-Americans.
- Bounce TV – a digital multicast network owned by the E. W. Scripps Company.
- Fox Soul – a digital television and streaming network primarily airing original talk shows and syndicated programming
- Oprah Winfrey Network – a cable and satellite network founded by Oprah Winfrey and jointly owned by Warner Bros. Discovery and Harpo Studios. While not exclusively targeting African Americans, much of its original programming is geared towards a similar demographic.
- Revolt – a music channel and media company founded by Sean "Puff Daddy" Combs.
- Soul of the South Network – a regional broadcast network.
- TheGrio – a digital multicast network focused on news and opinion-based programming.
- TV One – a general entertainment network targeting adults.
- Cleo TV – a sister network targeting millennial and Generation X women
- We TV – Owned by AMC Networks, became slanted towards Black women during the 2010s
Culture

From their earliest presence in North America, African Americans have significantly contributed literature, art, agricultural skills, cuisine, clothing styles, music, language, and social and technological innovation to American culture. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to West African and African American influences. Notable examples include George Washington Carver, who created nearly 500 products from peanuts, sweet potatoes, and pecans.[338]Soul food is a variety of cuisine popular among African Americans. It is closely related to the cuisine of the Southern United States. The descriptive terminology may have originated in the mid-1960s, when soul was a common definer used to describe African American culture (for example, soul music). African Americans were the first peoples in the United States to make fried chicken, along with Scottish immigrants to the South. Although the Scottish had been frying chicken before they emigrated, they lacked the spices and flavor that African Americans had used when preparing the meal. The Scottish American settlers therefore adopted the African American method of seasoning chicken.[339] However, fried chicken was generally a rare meal in the African American community and was usually reserved for special events or celebrations.[340]
Language
African-American English is a variety (dialect, ethnolect, and sociolect) of American English, commonly spoken by urban working-class and largely bi-dialectalmiddle-class African Americans.[341] It shares parts of its grammar and phonology with the Southern American English dialect. African American English differs from Standard American English (SAE) in certain pronunciation characteristics, tense usage, and grammatical structures, which were derived from West African languages (particularly those belonging to the Niger–Congo family).[342]
Virtually all habitual speakers of African American English can understand and communicate in Standard American English. As with all linguistic forms, AAVE's usage is influenced by various factors, including geographical, educational and socioeconomic background, as well as formality of setting.[342] Additionally, there are many literary uses of this variety of English, particularly in African American literature.[343]
Other languages are spoken by specific sub-communities. The Gullah language is an English-based creole language spoken mostly in the coastal regions of South Carolina and Georgia by the Gullah;[344] an off-shoot of this is Afro-Seminole Creole spoken by Black Seminoles mostly now in Mexico and Brackettville, Texas.[345]Louisiana Creole is a French-based creole and spoken mostly in Louisiana.[346]
Traditional names
African-American names are part of the cultural traditions of African Americans, most of these cultural names having no connection to Africa but strictly an African American cultural practice that developed in the United States during enslavement.[347] This new evidence became apparent by census records which show African Americans and White Americans, though they spoke the same language, chose to use different names even during times of enslavement, which is where and when the development of African American cultural names began.[347]
Prior to this newer information, it was only thought that before the 1950s, and 1960s, most African-American names closely resembled those used within European-American culture.[348] Babies of that era were generally given a few common names, with children using nicknames to distinguish the various people with the same name. With the rise of 1960s civil rights movement, there was a dramatic increase in names of various origins.[349]
By the 1970s, and 1980s, it had become common among African Americans to invent new names for themselves, although many of these invented names took elements from popular existing names. Prefixes such as La/Le, Da/De, Ra/Re and Ja/Je, and suffixes like -ique/iqua, -isha and -aun/-awn are common, as are inventive spellings for common names. The book Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool—The Very Last Word on First Names places the origins of "La" names in African-American culture in New Orleans.[350]
Even with the rise of inventive names, it is still common for African Americans to use biblical, historical, or traditional European names. Daniel, Christopher, Michael, David, James, Joseph, and Matthew were thus among the most frequent names for African-American boys in 2013.[348][351][352]
The name LaKeisha is typically considered American in origin but has elements that were drawn from both French and West/Central African roots. Names such as LaTanisha, JaMarcus, DeAndre, and Shaniqua were created in the same way. Punctuation marks are seen more often within African American names than other American names, such as the names Mo'nique and D'Andre.[348]
Music
African American music is one of the most pervasive African American cultural influences in the United States today and is among the most dominant in mainstream popular music. Hip-hop, R&B, funk, rock and roll, soul, blues, and other contemporary American musical forms originated in Black communities and evolved from other Black forms of music, including blues, doo-wop, barbershop, ragtime, bluegrass, jazz, and gospel music.
African American-derived musical forms have also influenced and been incorporated into virtually every other popular music genre in the world, including country and techno. African American genres are the most important ethnic vernacular tradition in America, as they have developed independent of African traditions from which they arise more so than any other immigrant groups, including Europeans; make up the broadest and longest lasting range of styles in America; and have, historically, been more influential, interculturally, geographically, and economically, than other American vernacular traditions.[353]
Dance
African Americans have also had an important role in American dance. Bill T. Jones, a prominent modern choreographer and dancer, has included historical African American themes in his work, particularly in the piece "Last Supper at Uncle Tom's Cabin/The Promised Land". Likewise, Alvin Ailey's artistic work, including his "Revelations" based on his experience growing up as an African American in the South during the 1930s, has had a significant influence on modern dance. Another form of dance, stepping, is an African American tradition whose performance and competition has been formalized through the traditionally Black fraternities and sororities at universities.[354]
Sports
Discussions of race and sports in the United States, where the two subjects have always been intertwined in American history, have focused to a great extent on African Americans. Depending on the type of sport and performance level, African Americans are reported to be over- or under-represented. African Americans compose the highest percentage of the minority groups active at the professional level, but are among those who show the lowest participation overall. And though the list of African Americans in professional sports remains high, it only represents a small fraction of aspiring black athletes.
Literature and academics

Many African American authors have written stories, poems, and essays influenced by their experiences as African Americans. African American literature is a major genre in American literature. Famous examples include Langston Hughes, James Baldwin, Richard Wright, Zora Neale Hurston, Ralph Ellison, Nobel Prize winner Toni Morrison, and Maya Angelou.
African American inventors have created many widely used devices in the world and have contributed to international innovation. Norbert Rillieux created the technique for converting sugar cane juice into white sugar crystals. Moreover, Rillieux left Louisiana in 1854 and went to France, where he spent ten years working with the Champollions deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics from the Rosetta Stone.[355] Most slave inventors were nameless, such as the slave owned by the Confederate President Jefferson Davis who designed the ship propeller used by the Confederate navy.[356]
By 1913, over 1,000 inventions were patented by Black Americans. Among the most notable inventors were Jan Matzeliger, who developed the first machine to mass-produce shoes,[357] and Elijah McCoy, who invented automatic lubrication devices for steam engines.[358]Granville Woods had 35 patents to improve electric railway systems, including the first system to allow moving trains to communicate.[359]Garrett A. Morgan developed the first automatic traffic signal and gas mask.[360]
Lewis Howard Latimer invented an improvement for the incandescent light bulb.[361] More recent inventors include Frederick McKinley Jones, who invented the movable refrigeration unit for food transport in trucks and trains.[362]Lloyd Quarterman worked with six other Black scientists on the creation of the atomic bomb (code named the Manhattan Project)[363] and helped develop the first nuclear reactor.[364]
As part of the preservation of their culture, African Americans have continuously launched their own publications and publishing houses, such as Robert Sengstacke Abbott, founder of the Chicago Defender newspaper, and Carter G. Woodson, the founder of Black History Month who spent over thirty years documenting and publishing African American history in journals and books.[365] The Johnson Publishing Company, founded by John H. Johnson in 1942, is a National Historic Landmark.[366]
Terminology
General

The term African American was popularized by Jesse Jackson in the 1980s,[6] although there are recorded uses from the 18th and 19th centuries,[367] for example, in post-emancipation holidays and conferences.[368][369] Earlier terms also used to describe Americans of African ancestry referred more to skin color than to ancestry. Other terms (such as colored, person of color, or negro) were included in the wording of various laws and legal decisions which some thought were being used as tools of White supremacy and oppression.[370]

A 16-page pamphlet entitled "A Sermon on the Capture of Lord Cornwallis" is notable for the attribution of its authorship to "An African American". Published in 1782, the book's use of this phrase predates any other yet identified by more than 50 years.[371]
In the 1980s, the term African American was advanced to give descendants of American slaves, and other American Blacks who lived through the slavery era, a heritage and a cultural base.[370] The term was popularized in Black communities around the country via word of mouth and ultimately received mainstream use after Jesse Jackson's use in 1988. Subsequently, major media outlets adopted it.[370]
Surveys in the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century showed that the majority of Black Americans had no preference for African American versus Black American,[372] although they had a slight preference for the latter in personal settings and the former in more formal settings.[373] By 2021, according to polling from Gallup, 58% of Black Americans expressed no preference for what their group should be called, with 17% each preferring Black and African-American. Among those with no preference, Gallup found a slight majority favored Black "if [they] had to choose."[374]
In 2020, the Associated Press updated its AP Stylebook to direct its writers to capitalize the first letter of Black when it is used "in a racial, ethnic or cultural sense, conveying an essential and shared sense of history, identity and community among people who identify as Black, including those in the African diaspora and within Africa."[375]The New York Times and other outlets made similar changes at the same time.[376]
In 2023, the government released a new more detailed breakdown due to the rise in racially Black immigration into the US, listing African American as a compound termed ethnicity, distinguished from other racially Black ethnicities such as Nigerian, Jamaican etc.[377]
The term African American embraces pan-Africanism as earlier enunciated by prominent African thinkers such as Marcus Garvey, W. E. B. Du Bois, and George Padmore. The term Afro-Usonian, and variations of such, are more rarely used.[378][379]
Official identity

Since 1977, in an attempt to keep up with changing social opinion, the United States government has officially classified Black people (revised to Black or African American in 1997) as "having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa."[380] Other federal offices, such as the US Census Bureau, adhere to the Office of Management and Budget standards on race in their data collection and tabulation efforts.[381] In preparation for the 2010 US census, a marketing and outreach plan called 2010 Census Integrated Communications Campaign Plan (ICC) recognized and defined African Americans as Black people born in the United States. From the ICC perspective, African Americans are one of three groups of Black people in the United States: African Americans, Black Africans, and Afro-Caribbeans.[382]
The ICC plan was to reach the three groups by acknowledging that each group has its own sense of community that is based on geography and ethnicity.[383] The best way to market the census process toward any of the three groups is to reach them through their own unique communication channels and not treat the entire Black population of the US as though they are all African Americans with a single ethnic and geographical background. The Federal Bureau of Investigation of the US Department of Justice categorizes Black or African American people as "[a] person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa" through racial categories used in the UCR Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, US Department of Commerce, derived from the 1977 Office of Management and Budget classification.[384]
Admixture
Historically, "race mixing" between Black and White people was taboo in the United States. So-called anti-miscegenation laws, barring Blacks and Whites from marrying or having sex, were established in colonial America as early as 1691,[385] and endured in many Southern states until the Supreme Court ruled them unconstitutional in Loving v. Virginia (1967). The taboo among American Whites surrounding White-Black relations is a historical consequence of the oppression and racial segregation of African Americans.[386] Historian David Brion Davis notes the racial mixing that occurred during slavery was frequently attributed by the planter class to the "lower-class white males" but Davis concludes that "there is abundant evidence that many slaveowners, sons of slaveowners, and overseers took Black mistresses or in effect raped the wives and daughters of slave families."[387] A famous example was Thomas Jefferson's mistress, Sally Hemings.[388] Although publicly opposed to race mixing, Jefferson, in his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1785, wrote: "The improvement of the Blacks in body and mind, in the first instance of their mixture with the whites, has been observed by every one, and proves that their inferiority is not the effect merely of their condition of life".[389]
Harvard University historian Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote in 2009 that "African Americans...are a racially mixed or mulatto people—deeply and overwhelmingly so". After the Emancipation Proclamation, Chinese American men married African American women in high proportions to their total marriage numbers due to few Chinese American women being in the United States.[390] African slaves and their descendants have also had a history of cultural exchange and intermarriage with Native Americans,[391] although they did not necessarily retain social, cultural or linguistic ties to Native peoples.[392] There are also increasing intermarriages and offspring between non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanics of any race, especially between Puerto Ricans and African Americans.[393]
Racially mixed marriages have become increasingly accepted in the United States since the civil rights movement.[394] Approval in national opinion polls has risen from 36% in 1978, to 48% in 1991, 65% in 2002, 77% in 2007.[395] A Gallup poll conducted in 2013 found that 84% of Whites and 96% of Blacks approved of interracial marriage, and 87% overall.[396] Black men are more than twice as likely to date and marry interracially than Black women.[397]
At the end of World War II, some African American military men stationed in Asia and Europe impregnated local non-Black women, resulting in the birth of thousands of mixed-race children called "Brown Babies". Some of these families later immigrated to the United States. However, some mixed-race children, especially in Japan, were placed in orphanages due to social stigmas associated with half-Black fatherless children in the 1950s.[398][399][400]
Terminology dispute
Author Debra Dickerson has argued that the term Black should refer strictly to the descendants of Africans who were brought to America as slaves, and not to the sons and daughters of Black immigrants who lack that ancestry. Thus, under her definition, President Barack Obama, who is the son of a Kenyan, is not Black.[401][402] She makes the argument that grouping all people of African descent together regardless of their unique ancestral circumstances would inevitably deny the lingering effects of slavery within the American community of slave descendants, in addition to denying Black immigrants recognition of their own unique ancestral backgrounds. "Lumping us all together", Dickerson wrote, "erases the significance of slavery and continuing racism while giving the appearance of progress."[401] Similar comments have been made concerning Kamala Harris, the daughter of a Jamaican immigrant, who was elected vice president in 2020.[403][404][405]
Similar viewpoints to Dickerson's have been expressed by author Stanley Crouch in a New York Daily News piece, Charles Steele Jr. of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference[406] and African American columnist David Ehrenstein of the Los Angeles Times, who accused White liberals of flocking to Blacks who were Magic Negros, a term that refers to a Black person with no past who simply appears to assist the mainstream White (as cultural protagonists/drivers) agenda.[407] Ehrenstein went on to say "He's there to assuage white 'guilt' they feel over the role of slavery and racial segregation in American history."[407]
The American Descendants of Slavery (ADOS) movement coalesces around this view, arguing that Black descendants of American slavery deserve a separate ethnic category that distinguishes them from other Black groups in the United States.[408] Their terminology has gained popularity in some circles, but others have criticized the movement for a perceived bias against (especially poor and Black) immigrants, and for its often inflammatory rhetoric.[403][409][410] Politicians such as Obama and Harris have received especially pointed criticism from the movement, as neither are ADOS and have spoken out at times against policies specific to them.[404][405]
Many Pan-African movements and organizations that are ideologically Black nationalist, anti-imperialist, anti-Zionist, and Scientific socialist like The All-African People's Revolutionary Party (A-APRP), have argued that African (relating to the diaspora) or New Afrikan should be used instead of African American.[411] Most notably, Malcolm X and Kwame Ture expressed similar views that African Americans are Africans who "happen to be in America", and should not claim or identify as being American if they are fighting for Black (New Afrikan) liberation. Historically, this is due to the enslavement of Africans during the transatlantic slave trade, ongoing anti-Black violence, and structural racism in countries like the United States.[412][413]
Terms no longer in common use
Before the independence of the Thirteen Colonies until the abolition of slavery in 1865, an African American slave was commonly known as a negro. Free negro was the legal status in the territory of an African American person who was not enslaved.[414] In response to the project of the American Colonization Society to transport free Blacks to the future Liberia, a project most Blacks strongly rejected, the Blacks at the time said they were no more African than White Americans were European, and referred to themselves with what they considered a more acceptable term, "colored Americans". The term was used until the second quarter of the 20th century, when it was considered outmoded – although it was retained in the name of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) – and generally gave way again to the exclusive use of negro. By the 1940s, the term was commonly capitalized (Negro); but by the mid-1960s, it was considered disparaging. By the end of the 20th century, negro had come to be considered inappropriate and was rarely used and perceived as a pejorative.[415][416] The term is rarely used by younger Black people, but remained in use by many older African Americans who had grown up with the term, particularly in the Southern US.[417] The term remains in use in some contexts, such as the United Negro College Fund, an American philanthropic organization.
There are many other deliberately insulting terms, many of which were in common use (e.g., nigger), but had become unacceptable in normal discourse before the end of the 20th century. One exception is the use, among the Black community, of the slur nigger rendered as nigga, representing the pronunciation of the word in African American English. This usage has been popularized by American rap and hip-hopmusic cultures and is used as part of an in-grouplexicon and speech. It is not necessarily derogatory and, when used among Black people, the word is often used to mean "homie" or "friend".[418] Acceptance of intra-group usage of the word nigga is still debated, although it has established a foothold among younger generations. The NAACP denounces the use of both nigga and nigger.[419]
See also
- African-American art
- African American cinema
- African-American middle class
- African-American neighborhood
- African-American politics:
- African-American upper class
- African diaspora in the Americas
- Afrophobia
- AP African American Studies
- Black Belt in the American South
- Black Hispanic and Latino Americans
- Black mecca
- Black Ozarkers
- Black Southerners
- Brown Babies
- Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
- Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
- Juneteenth
- National Museum of African American History and Culture
- North Africans in the United States
- Society and Black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas
- Runaway slaves in Spanish Florida
- South African Americans
- Stereotypes of African Americans
- Timeline of the civil rights movement
- African immigration to the United States
- West Indian Americans
- African American–Jewish relations
- African American–Korean American relations
Diaspora
Lists
- Index of articles related to African Americans
- List of African-American neighborhoods
- List of majority-Black counties in the United States
- List of African-American newspapers and media outlets
- List of historically black colleges and universities
- List of African-American astronauts
- List of African-American inventors and scientists
- List of African-American LGBT people
- List of African American poets
- List of African-American visual artists
- List of monuments to African Americans
- List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations
- List of topics related to the African diaspora
- List of African-American holidays
- Lists of African Americans
Notes
- ↑Predominantly Protestantism (65%), including the African-American Church, Evangelicalism and Mainline Protestantism. Other Christian denominations include Catholicism (4%), Jehovah's Witnesses and Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (combined 4%).
- ↑DNA studies of African-Americans have determined that they primarily descend from various Niger-Congo-speaking West/Central African ethnic groups: Akan (including the Ashanti and Fante subgroups), Balanta, Bamileke, Bamun, Bariba, Biafara, Bran, Chokwe, Dagomba, Edo, Ewe, Fon, Fula, Ga, Gurma, Hausa, Ibibio (including the Efik subgroup), Igbo, Igala, Ijaw (including the Kalabari subgroup), Itsekiri, Jola, Luchaze, Lunda, Kpele, Kru, Mahi, Mandinka (including the Mende subgroup), Naulu, Serer, Susu, Temne, Tikar, Wolof, Yaka, Yoruba, and Bantu peoples; specifically the Duala, Kongo, Luba, Mbundu (including the Ovimbundu subgroup) and Teke.[271]
References
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African American refers to descendants of enslaved Black people who are from the United States. The reason we use an entire continent (Africa) instead of a country (e.g., Irish American) is because slave masters purposefully obliterated tribal ancestry, language, and family units in order to destroy the spirit of the people they enslaved, thereby making it impossible for their descendants to trace their history prior to being born into slavery.
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A movement led by the Rev. Jesse Jackson to call blacks African-Americans has met with both rousing approval and deep-seated skepticism in a debate that is coming to symbolize the role and history of blacks in this country. ... The question of a name has caused pain and controversy since the first Africans were captured and shipped to the Americas in the 17th century. The slaves called themselves Africans at first, but slave masters gave them English names and called them Negroes, the Portuguese word for black, historians say. That term was resented by some blacks who said it was degrading when whites mispronounced it, accidentally or intentionally.
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Estimates of Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of a million down to fifty thousand. Available evidence indicates that about one hundred thousand Negroes have joined the movement at one time or another, but few objective observers believe that the Black Muslims can muster more than twenty or twenty-five thousand active temple people.
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The common response of Malcolm X to questions about numbers—'Those who know aren't saying, and those who say don't know'—was typical of the attitude of the leadership.
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The Black audience includes all individuals of Black African descent. There are three major groups that represent the Black Audience in the United States. These groups are African Americans (Blacks born in the United States), Black Africans (Black Immigrants from Africa) and Afro-Caribbeans, which includes Haitians.
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Community, both geographic and ethnic, creates a sense of belonging and pride that is unique to the Black audience (African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, and Black Africans).
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- ↑Frank W Sweet (January 1, 2005). "The Invention of the Color Line: 1691—Essays on the Color Line and the One-Drop Rule". Backentyme Essays. Archived from the original on April 9, 2007. Retrieved January 4, 2008.
- ↑Yancey, George (March 22, 2007). "Experiencing Racism: Differences in the Experiences of Whites Married to Blacks and Non-Black Racial Minorities". Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 38 (2): 197–213. doi:10.3138/jcfs.38.2.197.
- ↑Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World.(2006) ISBN 978-0-19-514073-6 p. 201
- ↑"Memoirs of Madison Hemings". PBS Frontline.
- ↑Higginbotham, A. Leon (1980). In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process. The Colonial Period. Oxford University Press US. p. 10.
- ↑"The United States". Chinese blacks in the Americas. Color Q World. Archived from the original on June 15, 2018. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
- ↑Walton-Raji, Angela Y. (2008). "Researching Black Native American Genealogy of the Five Civilized Tribes". Oklahoma's Black Native Americans. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
- ↑G. Reginald Daniel (June 25, 2010). More Than Black?: Multiracial. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-4399-0483-1.
- ↑"Census.gov". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 9, 2012.
- ↑Swanbrow, Diane (March 23, 2000). "Intimate Relationships Between Races More Common Than Thought". University of Michigan. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
- ↑Krugman, Paul, The Conscience of a Liberal, W. W. Norton & Company, 2007, p. 210.
- ↑Newport, Frank (July 25, 2013). "In U.S., 87% Approve of Black-White Marriage, vs. 4% in 1958". Gallup. Retrieved December 21, 2015.
- ↑Raley, R. K.; Sweeney, M. M.; Wondra, D. (2015). "The Growing Racial and Ethnic Divide in U.S. Marriage Patterns". The Future of Children. 25 (2): 89–109. doi:10.1353/foc.2015.0014. PMC 4850739. PMID 27134512.
- ↑"Rising Sun, "Rising Soul": Mixed Race Japanese of African Descent > Event Details > USC Center for Japanese Religions and Culture". dornsifelive.usc.edu. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
- ↑"Growing up as a black child in post-war Germany". BBC. British Broadcasting Company. October 30, 2020. Retrieved February 7, 2025.
- ↑"Revisited - Meeting Japan's World War II orphans born to US soldiers and Japanese mothers". France 24. June 21, 2024.
- 12Dickerson, Debra J. (January 22, 2007). "Colorblind – Barack Obama would be the great black hope in the next presidential race – if he were actually black". Salon. Archived from the original on September 24, 2010. Retrieved October 7, 2010.
- ↑"The Colbert Report – Debra Dickerson". Comedy Central. February 8, 2007. Archived from the original on August 13, 2021. Retrieved December 6, 2021.
- 12Scherer, Michael; Wang, Amy (July 8, 2019). "A few liberal activists challenged Kamala Harris's black authenticity. The president's son amplified their message". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 13, 2020.
- 12Hampton, Rachelle (July 9, 2019). "A Movement or A Troll?: Why Claims That Kamala Harris Is "Not an American Black" Are Suddenly Everywhere". Slate Magazine. Retrieved December 1, 2021.
- 12Russ, Valerie (February 11, 2019). "It's not whether Kamala Harris is 'black enough,' critics say, but whether her policies will support native black Americans". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved December 1, 2021.
- ↑"SCLC head: Michelle Obama treated more roughly than her husband, because of her slave heritage". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. June 21, 2008. Retrieved June 4, 2021.
- 12Ehrenstein, David (March 19, 2007). "Obama the 'Magic Negro'". Los Angeles Times.
- ↑Stockman, Farah (November 8, 2019). "'We're Self-Interested': The Growing Identity Debate in Black America". The New York Times. p. A1. Archived from the original on January 1, 2022.
- ↑Chávez, Aída (February 13, 2019). "Black Critics of Kamala Harris and Cory Booker Push Back Against Claims That They're Russian "Bots"". The Intercept. Retrieved December 1, 2021.
- ↑"Controversial group ADOS divides black Americans in fight for economic equality". ABC News. Archived from the original on January 19, 2020. Retrieved December 1, 2021.
- ↑"The Resurgence of New Afrikan Identity". HuffPost. March 18, 2016. Retrieved March 2, 2022.
- ↑Witt, Karen de (April 14, 1996). "Conversations/Kwame Ture;Formerly Stokely Carmichael And Still Ready for the Revolution". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 2, 2022.
- ↑"Malcolm X – Ballot or the Bullet (Washington Heights, NY, March 29, 1964)". Genius. Retrieved March 2, 2022.
- ↑Frazier, Edward Franklin (1968). The Free Negro Family. p. 1.
- ↑Tottie, Gunnel (2002). An Introduction to American English. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-631-19792-8.
- ↑Anderson, Talmadge; Stewart, James (2007). Introduction to African American Studies. Baltimore: Black Classics Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-58073-039-6.
- ↑Good, Chris (March 26, 2010). "They Put 'Negro' on There?". The Atlantic. Retrieved October 7, 2010.
- ↑Rahman, Jacquelyn (June 2012). "The N Word: Its History and Use in the African American Community". Journal of English Linguistics. 40 (2): 137–171. doi:10.1177/0075424211414807. ISSN 0075-4242. S2CID 144164210.
- ↑Brewington, Kelly (July 10, 2007). "NAACP aims to bury the 'N-word'". The Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on October 24, 2019. Retrieved June 15, 2019.
Further reading
- Altman, Susan (2000). The Encyclopedia of African-American Heritage. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-4125-1.
- Byrd, W. Michael, and Linda A. Clayton. An American health dilemma: a medical history of African Americans and the problem of race: beginnings to 1900 (Routledge, 2012).
- Finkelman, Paul, ed. Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass (3 vol Oxford University Press, 2006).
- Finkelman, Paul, ed. Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-first Century (5 vol. Oxford University Press, US, 2009).
- John Hope Franklin, Alfred Moss, From Slavery to Freedom. A History of African Americans, McGraw-Hill Education 2001, standard work, first edition in 1947.
- Gates, Henry L. and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham (eds), African American Lives, Oxford University Press, 2004 – more than 600 biographies.
- Hine, Darlene Clark, Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, Elsa Barkley Brown (eds), Black Women in America: An Historical Encyclopedia, (Indiana University Press 2005).
- Ortiz, Paul (2018). An African American and Latinx History of the United States. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-0593-4.
- Horton, James Oliver, and Lois E. Horton. Hard Road to Freedom: The Story of African America, African Roots Through the Civil War. Vol. 1 (Rutgers University Press, 2002); Hard Road to Freedom: The Story of African America: Volume 2: From the Civil War to the Millennium (2002). online
- Kranz, Rachel. African-American Business Leaders and Entrepreneurs (Infobase Publishing, 2004).
- Salzman, Jack, ed. Encyclopedia of Afro-American culture and history, New York City: Macmillan Library Reference US, 1996.
- Stewart, Earl L. (1998). African American Music: An Introduction. Schirmer Books. ISBN 978-0-02-860294-3.
- Southern, Eileen (1997). The Music of Black Americans: A History (3rd ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-97141-5.
External links
- Richard Thompson Ford Name Games, Slate, September 16, 2004. Article discussing the problems of defining African American
- Scientific American Magazine (June 2006) Trace Elements Reconnecting African Americans to an ancestral past
- Black History related original documents and photos
- Frank Newport, "Black or African American?"Archived September 6, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, Gallup, September 28, 2007
- "The Long Journey of Black Americans" – slideshow by The First Post
- sociedad afroamericana
- Grupos étnicos en los Estados Unidos
- Historia de los derechos civiles en los Estados Unidos
- cultura afroamericana
- Etnónimos de afroamericanos