Junkers Ju 87

The Ju 87's principal designer, Hermann Pohlmann, held the opinion that any dive-bomber design needed to be simple and robust.^[4] This led to many technical innovations, such as the retractable undercarriage being discarded in favour of one of the Stuka's distinctive features, its fixed and "spatted" undercarriage. Pohlmann continued to carry on developing and adding to his ideas and those of DiplIng Karl Plauth (Plauth was killed in a flying accident in November 1927), and produced the Ju A 48, which underwent testing on 29 September 1928. The military version of the Ju A 48 was designated the Ju K 47.^[4]

Tras la llegada de los nazis al poder, el diseño recibió prioridad. A pesar de la competencia inicial del Henschel Hs 123 , el Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM/Ministerio de Aviación Alemán) optó por los diseños de Herman Pohlmann de Junkers y el codiseñador del K 47, Karl Plauth . Durante las pruebas del K 47 en 1932, se introdujeron estabilizadores verticales dobles para proporcionar al artillero trasero un mejor campo de tiro . La característica principal, y la que se convertiría en la más distintiva, del Ju 87 eran sus alas de gaviota invertidas de doble larguero . ^{[ 5 ]} Tras la muerte de Plauth, Pohlmann continuó el desarrollo del bombardero en picado de Junkers. El Ju A 48, matrícula D-ITOR, estaba equipado originalmente con un motor BMW 132 , que producía 450 kW (600 hp ). La aeronave también estaba equipada con frenos aerodinámicos para las pruebas de picado. El avión recibió una buena evaluación y "exhibió muy buenas características de vuelo". ^{[ 4 ]}  

Ernst Udet took an immediate liking to the concept of dive-bombing after flying the Curtiss F11C Goshawk. When Walther Wever and Robert Ritter von Greim were invited to watch Udet perform a trial flight in May 1934 at the Jüterbog artillery range, it raised doubts about the capability of the dive bomber. Udet began his dive at 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and released his 1 kg (2.2 lb) bombs at 100 m (330 ft), barely recovering and pulling out of the dive.^[6] The chief of the Luftwaffe Command Office Walther Wever, and the Secretary of State for Aviation Erhard Milch, feared that such high-level nerves and skill could not be expected of "average pilots" in the Luftwaffe.^[6] Nevertheless, development continued at Junkers.^[6] Udet's "growing love affair" with the dive bomber pushed it to the forefront of German aviation development.^[7] Udet went so far as to advocate that all medium bombers should have dive-bombing capabilities,^[8] which initially doomed the only dedicated, strategic heavy bomber design to enter German front-line service during the war years—the 30-metre wingspan Heinkel He 177A—into having an airframe design (due to Udet examining its design details in November 1937) that could perform "medium angle" dive-bombing missions, until ReichsmarschallHermann Göring exempted the He 177A, Germany's only operational heavy bomber, in September 1942 from being given the task of such a mismatched mission profile for its large airframe.^[9]

The design of the Ju 87 had begun in 1933 as part of the Sturzbomber-Programm. The Ju 87 was to be powered by the British Rolls-Royce Kestrel liquid-cooled V12 engine, ten of which were ordered by Junkers on 19 April 1934 at a cost of £20,514 2s 6d (equivalent to £1,629,400in 2024).^[10] The first Ju 87 prototype was built by AB Flygindustri in Sweden and secretly brought to Germany in late 1934. It was to have been completed in April 1935, but, due to the inadequate strength of the airframe, construction took until October 1935. The mostly complete Ju 87 V1 W.Nr.^[c] 4921 (less non-essential parts) took off for its maiden flight on 17 September 1935. The aircraft was later given the registration D-UBYR.^[11] The flight report, by HauptmannWilly Neuenhofen, stated the only problem was with the small radiator, which caused the engine to overheat.^[12]

The Ju 87 V1, powered by a Kestrel engine and fitted with a twin tail, crashed on 24 January 1936 at Kleutsch near Dresden, killing Junkers' chief test pilot, Willy Neuenhofen, and his engineer, Heinrich Kreft.^[13] The square twin fins and rudders proved too weak; they collapsed and the aircraft crashed after it entered an inverted spin during the testing of the terminal dynamic pressure in a dive.^[14] The crash prompted a change to a single vertical stabiliser tail design. To withstand strong forces during a dive, heavy plating, along with brackets riveted to the frame and longeron, was fitted to the fuselage. Other early additions included the installation of hydraulic dive brakes that were fitted under the leading edge and could rotate 90°.^[15]

The RLM was still not interested in the Ju 87 and was not impressed that it relied on a British engine. In late 1935, Junkers suggested fitting a DB 600 inverted V12 engine, with the final variant to be equipped with the Jumo 210. This was accepted by the RLM as an interim solution. The reworking of the design began on 1 January 1936. The test flight could not be carried out for over two months due to a lack of adequate aircraft. The 24 January crash had already destroyed one machine. The second prototype was also beset by design problems. It had its twin stabilisers removed and a single tail fin installed due to fears over stability. Due to a shortage of engines, instead of a DB 600, a BMW "Hornet" engine was fitted. All these delays set back testing until 25 February 1936.^[16]

By March 1936, the second prototype, the V2, was finally fitted with the Junkers Jumo 210Aa engine, which a year later was replaced by a Jumo 210 G (W.Nr. 19310). The testing went well, and the pilot, Flight Captain Hesselbach, praised its performance. However, Wolfram von Richthofen, in charge of developing and testing new aircraft in the Technisches Amt, or Technical Service, told the Junkers representative and Construction Office chief engineer Ernst Zindel that the Ju 87 stood little chance of becoming the Luftwaffe's main dive bomber, as it was underpowered in his opinion. On 9 June 1936, the RLM ordered cessation of development in favour of the Heinkel He 118, a rival design. Udet cancelled the order the next day, and development continued.^[17]

On 27 July 1936, Udet crashed the He 118 prototype, He 118 V1 D-UKYM.^[18] That same day, Charles Lindbergh was visiting Ernst Heinkel, so Heinkel could communicate with Udet only by telephone. According to this version of the story, Heinkel warned Udet about the propeller's fragility. Udet failed to consider this, so in a dive, the engine oversped and the propeller broke away.^[19] Immediately after this incident, Udet announced the Stuka the winner of the development contest.^[18]

Despite being chosen, the design was still lacking and drew frequent criticism from Wolfram von Richthofen. Testing of the V4 prototype (A Ju 87 A-0) in early 1937 revealed several problems. The Ju 87 could take off in 250 m (820 ft) and climb to 1,875 m (6,152 ft) in eight minutes with a 250 kg (550 lb) bomb load, and its cruising speed was 250 km/h (160 mph). Richthofen pushed for a more powerful engine.^[20] According to the test pilots, the Heinkel He 50 had a better acceleration rate, and could climb away from the target area much more quickly, avoiding enemy ground and air defences. Richthofen stated that any maximum speed below 350 km/h (220 mph) was unacceptable for those reasons. Pilots also complained that navigation and powerplant instruments were mixed together, and were not easy to read, especially in combat. Despite this, pilots praised the aircraft's handling qualities and strong airframe.^[21]

These problems were to be resolved by installing the DB 600 engine, but delays in development forced the installation of the Jumo 210 D inverted V-12 engine. Flight testing began on 14 August 1936. Subsequent testing and progress fell short of Richthofen's hopes, although the machine's speed was increased to 280 km/h (170 mph) at ground level and 290 km/h (180 mph) at 1,250 m (4,100 ft), while maintaining its good handling ability.^[22]

The Ju 87 was a single-engined all-metal cantilevermonoplane. It had a fixed undercarriage and could carry a two-person crew. The main construction material was duralumin, and the external coverings were made of duralumin sheeting. Parts that were required to be of strong construction, such as the wing flaps, were made of Pantal (a German aluminium alloy containing titanium as a hardening element) and its components made of Elektron. Bolts and parts that were required to take heavy stress were made of steel.^[23]

The Ju 87 was fitted with detachable hatches and removable coverings to aid and ease maintenance and overhaul. The designers avoided welding parts wherever possible, preferring moulded and cast parts instead. Large airframe segments were interchangeable as a complete unit, which increased speed of repair.^[23]

The airframe was also subdivided into sections to allow transport by road or rail. The wings were of standard Junkers double-wing construction. This gave the Ju 87 considerable advantage on take-off; even at a shallow angle, large lift forces were created through the aerofoil, reducing take-off and landing runs.^[23]

In accordance with the Aircraft Certification Centre for "Stress Group 5", the Ju 87 had reached the acceptable structural strength requirements for a dive bomber. It was able to withstand diving speeds of 600 km/h (370 mph) and a maximum level speed of 340 km/h (210 mph) near ground level, and a flying weight of 4,300 kg (9,500 lb). Performance in the diving attack was enhanced by the introduction of dive brakes under each wing, which allowed the Ju 87 to maintain a constant speed and allow the pilot to steady his aim. It also prevented the crew from suffering extreme g forces and high acceleration during "pull-out" from the dive.^[23]

The fuselage had an oval cross-section and housed, in most examples, a Junkers Jumo 211water-cooledinvertedV-12 engine. The cockpit was protected from the engine by a firewall ahead of the wing centre section where the fuel tanks were located. At the rear of the cockpit, the bulkhead was covered by a canvas cover which could be breached by the crew in an emergency, enabling them to escape into the main fuselage. The canopy was split into two sections and joined by a strong welded steel frame. The canopy itself was made of Plexiglas and each compartment had its own "sliding hood" for the two crew members.^[23]

The engine was mounted on two main support frames that were supported by two tubular struts. The frame structure was triangulated and emanated from the fuselage. The main frames were bolted onto the engine's top quarter. In turn, the frames were attached to the firewall by universal joints. The firewall itself was constructed from asbestos mesh with dural sheets on both sides. All conduits passing through had to be arranged so that no harmful gases could penetrate the cockpit.^[24]

The fuel system comprised two fuel tanks between the main (forward) and rear spars of the (inner) anhedral wing section of the port and starboard wings, each with 240-litre (63 US gal) capacity.^[25] The tanks also had a predetermined limit which, if passed, would warn the pilot via a red warning light in the cockpit. The fuel was injected via a pump from the tanks to the engine. Should this shut down, it could be pumped manually using a hand-pump on the fuel cock armature.^[24] The powerplant was cooled by a 10-litre (2.6 US gal), ring-shaped aluminium water container situated between the propeller and engine. A further container of 20-litre (5.3 US gal) was positioned under the engine.^[24]

The control surfaces operated in much the same way as other aircraft, with the exception of the innovative automatic pull-out system. Releasing the bomb initiated the pull-out, or automatic recovery and climb, upon the deflection of the dive brakes. The pilot could override the system by exerting significant force on the control column and taking manual control.^[26]

The wing was the most unusual feature. It consisted of a single centre section and two outer sections, each installed using four universal joints. The centre section had a large negative dihedral (anhedral) and the outer surfaces a positive dihedral. This created the inverted gull, or "cranked", wing pattern along the leading edge. The shape of the wing improved the pilot's ground visibility and also allowed a shorter undercarriage height. The centre section protruded by only 1 m (3 ft 3 in) on either side.^[26]

The offensive armament was two 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine guns fitted one in each wing outboard of undercarriage, operated by a mechanical pneumatics system from the pilot's control column. The rear gunner/radio operator operated one 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 15 machine gun for defensive purposes.^[23]

The engine and propeller had automatic controls, and an auto-trimmer made the aircraft tail-heavy as the pilot rolled over into his dive, lining up red lines at 60°, 75° or 80° on the cockpit side window with the horizon and aiming at the target with the sight of the fixed gun. The heavy bomb was swung down clear of the propeller on crutches prior to release.^[27]

Flying at 4,600 m (15,100 ft), the pilot located his target through a bombsight window in the cockpit floor. The pilot moved the dive lever to the rear, limiting the "throw" of the control column.^[28] The dive brakes were activated automatically, the pilot set the trim tabs, reduced his throttle and closed the coolant flaps. The aircraft then rolled 180°, automatically nosing the aircraft into a dive. Red tabs protruded from the upper surfaces of the wing as a visual indicator to the pilot that, in case of a g-force induced black-out, the automatic dive recovery system would be activated. The Stuka dived at a 60–90° angle, holding a constant speed of 500–600 km/h (310–370 mph) due to dive-brake deployment, which increased the accuracy of the Ju 87's aim.^[28]

When the aircraft was reasonably close to the target, a light on the contact altimeter (an altimeter equipped with an electrical contact which triggers at a preset altitude) came on to indicate the bomb-release point, usually at a minimum height of 450 m (1,480 ft). The pilot released the bomb and initiated the automatic pull-out mechanism by depressing a knob on the control column.^[28] An elongated U-shaped crutch located under the fuselage swung the bomb out of the way of the propeller, and the aircraft automatically began a 6g pullout.^[28] Once the nose was above the horizon, dive brakes were retracted, the throttle was opened, and the propeller was set to climb. The pilot regained control and resumed normal flight. The coolant flaps had to be reopened quickly to prevent overheating. The automatic pull-out was not liked by all pilots. Helmut Mahlke later said that he and his unit disconnected the system because it allowed the enemy to predict the Ju 87's recovery pattern and height, making it easier for ground defences to hit an aircraft.^[29]

Physical stress on the crew was severe. Human beings subjected to more than 5g in a seated position will suffer vision impairment in the form of a grey veil known to Stuka pilots as "seeing stars". They lose vision while remaining conscious; after five seconds, they black out. The Ju 87 pilots experienced the visual impairments most during "pull-up" from a dive.^[30]

Eric "Winkle" BrownRN, a British test pilot and Commanding Officer of No. 1426 Flight RAF (the captured enemy aircraft Flight), tested the Ju 87 at RAE Farnborough. He said of the Stuka, "I had flown a lot of dive-bombers and it's the only one that you can dive truly vertically. Sometimes with the dive-bombers ... maximum dive is usually in the order of 60 degrees ... When flying the Stuka, because it's all automatic, you are really flying vertically ... The Stuka was in a class of its own."^[31]

Extensive tests were carried out by the Junkers works at their Dessau plant. It was discovered that the highest load a pilot could endure was 8.5 g for three seconds, when the aircraft was pushed to its limit by the centrifugal forces. At less than 4 g, no visual problems or loss of consciousness were experienced.^[32] Above 6 g, 50% of pilots suffered visual problems, or greyout. With 40%, vision vanished altogether from 7.5 g upwards and black-out sometimes occurred.^[33] Despite this blindness, the pilot could maintain consciousness and was capable of "bodily reactions". After more than three seconds, half the subjects passed out. The pilot would regain consciousness two or three seconds after the centrifugal forces had dropped below 3 g and had lasted no longer than three seconds. In a crouched position, pilots could withstand 7.5 g and were able to remain functional for a short duration. In this position, Junkers concluded that 2⁄3 of pilots could withstand 8 g and perhaps 9 g for three to five seconds without vision defects which, under war conditions, was acceptable.^[34] During tests with the Ju 87 A-2, new technologies were tried out to reduce the effects of g. The pressurised cabin was of great importance during this research. Testing revealed that at high altitude, even 2 g could cause death in an unpressurised cabin and without appropriate clothing. This new technology, along with special clothing and oxygen masks, was researched and tested. When the United States Army occupied the Junkers factory at Dessau on 21 April 1945, they were both impressed at and interested in the medical flight tests with the Ju 87.^[34]

The concept of dive bombing became so popular among the leadership of the Luftwaffe that it became almost obligatory in new aircraft designs. Later bomber models like the Junkers Ju 88 and the Dornier Do 217 were equipped for dive bombing. The Heinkel He 177 strategic bomber was initially supposed to have dive bombing capabilities, a requirement that contributed to the failure of the design,^[35] with the requirement not rescinded until September 1942 by Göring.^[9]

Once the Stuka became too vulnerable to fighter opposition on all fronts, work was done to develop a replacement. None of the dedicated close-support designs on the drawing board progressed far due to the impact of the war and technological difficulties. So the Luftwaffe settled on the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 fighter aircraft, with the Fw 190F becoming the ground-attack version. The Fw 190F started to replace the Ju 87 for day missions in 1943, but the Ju 87 continued to be used as a night nuisance-raider until the end of the war.^[36]

The second prototype had a redesigned single vertical stabiliser and a 610 PS (601.7 hp; 448.7 kW) Jumo 210 A engine installed, and later the Jumo 210Da. The first A series variant, the A-0, was of all-metal construction, with an enclosed cockpit under a "greenhouse" well-framed canopy; bearing twin radio masts on its aft sections, diagonally mounted to either side of the airframe's planform centreline and unique to the -A version. To ease the difficulty of mass production, the leading edge of the wing was straightened out and the ailerons' two aerofoil sections had smooth leading and trailing edges. The pilot could adjust the elevator and rudder trim tabs in flight, and the tail was connected to the landing flaps, which were positioned in two parts between the ailerons and fuselage. The A-0 also had a flatter engine cowling, which gave the pilot a much better field of vision. In order for the engine cowling to be flattened, the engine was set down nearly 0.25 m (9.8 in). The fuselage was also lowered along with the gunner's position, allowing the gunner a better field of fire.^[37]

The RLM ordered seven A-0s initially, but then increased the order to 11. Early in 1937, the A-0 was tested with varied bomb loads. The underpowered Jumo 210A, as pointed out by von Richthofen, was insufficient, and was quickly replaced with the Jumo 210D engine.^[37]

The A-1 differed from the A-0 only slightly.^[38] As well as the installation of the Jumo 210D, the A-1 had two 220 L (58 US gal; 48 imp gal) fuel tanks built into the inner wing, but it was not armoured or protected.^[38] The A-1 was also intended to be fitted with four 7.92 mm (0.312 in) MG 17 machine guns in its wings, but two of these—one per side—were omitted due to weight concerns; the pair that remained were fed a total of 500 rounds of ammunition, stored in the design's characteristic transverse strut-braced, large-planform undercarriage "trousers", not used on the Ju 87B versions and onward. The pilot relied on the Revi C 21C gun sight for the two MG 17s. The gunner had a single 7.92 mm (0.312 in) MG 15, with 14 drums of ammunition, each containing 75 rounds. This represented a 150-round increase in this area over the Ju 87 A-0. The A-1 was also fitted with a larger 3.3 m (11 ft) propeller.^[38]

The Ju 87 was capable of carrying a 500 kg (1,100 lb) bomb, but only if not carrying the rear gunner/radio operator as, even with the Jumo 210D, the Ju 87 was still underpowered for operations with more than a 250 kg (550 lb) bomb load. All Ju 87 As were restricted to 250 kg (550 lb) weapons (although during the Spanish Civil War missions were conducted without the gunner).^[39]

The Ju 87 A-2 was retrofitted with the Jumo 210Da fitted with a two-stage supercharger. The only further significant difference between the A-1 and A-2 was the H-PA-III controllable-pitch propeller.^[40] By mid-1938, 262 Ju 87 As had been produced, 192 from the Junkers factory in Dessau and a further 70 from Weser Flugzeugbau ("Weserflug" – WFG) in Lemwerder near Bremen. The new, more powerful, Ju 87B model started to replace the Ju 87A at this time.^[41]

Production variants

• Ju 87 A-0 : Ten pre-production aircraft, powered by a 640 PS (471 kW or 632 hp) Jumo 210C engine.^[42]
• Ju 87 A-1 : Initial production version.
• Ju 87 A-2 : Production version fitted with an improved 680 PS (500 kW or 670 hp) Jumo 210E engine.

The Ju 87 B series was to be the first mass-produced variant. A total of six pre-production Ju 87 B-0 were produced, built from Ju 87 A airframes.^[43] The first production version was the Ju 87 B-1, with a considerably larger engine, its Jumo 211D generating 1,200 PS (883 kW or 1,184 hp), and completely redesigned fuselage and landing gear, replacing the twin radio masts of the "A" version with a single mast mounted further forward on the "greenhouse" canopy, and much simpler, lighter-weight wheel "spats" used from the -B version onwards, discarding the transverse strut bracing of the "A" version's maingear design. This new design was again tested in Spain, and after proving its abilities there, production was ramped up to 60 per month. As a result, by the outbreak of World War II, the Luftwaffe had 336 Ju 87 B-1s on hand.^[28]

The B-1 was also fitted with "Lärmgeräte", essentially sirens driven by propellers with a diameter of 0.7 m (2.3 ft)^[44] The devices caused a loss of 20–25 km/h (12–15 mph) through drag, and over time the sirens were no longer installed on many units, although they remained in use to various extent. As an alternative, some bombs were fitted with whistles on the fin to produce the noise after release.^[45] The trumpets were a suggestion from Udet, but some authors say the idea originated from Adolf Hitler.^[46]

The Ju 87 B-2s that followed had some improvements and were built in several variants that included ski-equipped versions (the B-1 also had this modification)^[47] and at the other end, with a tropical operation kit called the Ju 87 B-2 trop. Italy's Regia Aeronautica received B-2s and named them the "Picchiatello", while others went to the other members of the Axis, including Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania. The B-2 also had an oil hydraulic system for closing the cowling flaps. This continued in all the later designs.^[48]

Production of the Ju 87 B started in 1937. 89 B-1s were to be built at Junkers' factory in Dessau and another 40 at the Weserflug plant in Lemwerder by July 1937. Production would be carried out by the Weserflug company after April 1938, but Junkers continued producing Ju 87 up until March 1940.^[49]

A long range version of the Ju 87 B was also built, known as the Ju 87 R, the letter being an abbreviation for Reichweite, "(operational) range". They were primarily intended for anti-shipping missions. The Ju 87 R had a B-series airframe with an additional oil tank and fuel lines to the outer wing stations to permit the use of two 300 litres (79 US gal) standardised capacity under-wing drop tanks, used by a wide variety of Luftwaffe aircraft through most of the war. This increased fuel capacity to 1,080 litres (290 US gal) (500 litres in main fuel tank of which 480 litres were usable + 600 litres from drop tanks). To prevent overload conditions, bomb carrying ability was often restricted to a single 250 kg (550 lb) bomb if the aircraft was fully loaded with fuel.

The Ju 87 R-1 had a B-1 airframe with the exception of a modification in the fuselage which enabled an additional oil tank. This was installed to feed the engine due to the increase in range with the extra fuel tanks.^[50]

The Ju 87 R-2 had the same airframe as the B-2, and strengthened to ensure it could withstand dives of 600 km/h (370 mph). The Jumo 211D in-line engine was installed, replacing the R-1s Jumo 211A.^[50] Due to an increase in overall weight by 700 kg (1,500 lb), the Ju 87 R-2 was 30 km/h (19 mph) slower than the Ju 87 B-1 and had a lower service ceiling. The Ju 87 R-2 had an increased range advantage of 360 km (220 mi).^[49] The R-3 and R-4 were the last R variants developed. Only a few were built. The R-3 was an experimental tug for gliders and had an expanded radio system so the crew could communicate with the glider crew by way of the tow rope. The R-4 differed from the R-2 in the Jumo 211J powerplant.^[51]

On 18 August 1937, the RLM decided to introduce the Ju 87 Tr(C). The Ju 87 C was intended to be a dive and torpedo bomber for the Kriegsmarine. The type was ordered into prototype production and available for testing in January 1938. Testing was given two months and was to begin in February and end in April 1938.^[52] The prototype V10 was to be a fixed wing test aircraft, while the following V11 would be modified with folding wings. The prototypes were Ju 87 B-0 airframes powered by Jumo 211 A engines.^[52] Owing to delays, the V10 was not completed until March 1938. It first flew on 17 March and was designated Ju 87 C-1.^[52] On 12 May, the V11 also flew for the first time. By 15 December 1939, 915 arrested landings on dry land had been made. It was found that the arresting gear winch was too weak and had to be replaced. Tests showed the average braking distance was 20–35 metres (66–115 ft).^[53] The Ju 87 V11 was designated C-0 on 8 October 1938. It was fitted out with standard Ju 87 C-0 equipment and better wing-folding mechanisms. The "carrier Stuka" was to be built at the Weserflug Company's Lemwerder plant between April and July 1940.^[54]

Among the "special" equipment of the Ju 87 C was a two-seat rubber dinghy with a flare gun, signal ammunition and other emergency supplies. A quick fuel dump mechanism and two inflatable 750 L (200 US gal) bags in each wing and a further two 500 L (130 US gal) bags in the fuselage enabled the Ju 87 C to remain afloat for up to three days in calm seas.^[54] On 6 October 1939, with the war already underway, 120 of the planned Ju 87 Tr(C)s on order at that point were cancelled. Despite the cancellation, the tests continued using catapults. The Ju 87 C had a takeoff weight of 5,300 kg (11,700 lb) and a speed of 133 km/h (83 mph) on departure. The Ju 87 could be launched with a SC 500 kg (1,100 lb) bomb and four SC 50 kg (110 lb) bombs under the fuselage. The C-1 was to have two MG 17s mounted in the wing with a MG 15 operated by the rear gunner. On 18 May 1940, production of the C-1 was switched to the R-1.^[55]

Despite the Stuka's vulnerability to enemy fighters having been exposed during the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe had no choice but to continue its development, as there was no replacement aircraft in sight.^[56] The result was the D-series. In June 1941, the RLM ordered five prototypes, the Ju 87 V21–25. A Daimler-Benz DB 603 powerplant was to be installed in the Ju 87 D-1, but it did not have the power of the Jumo 211 and performed "poorly" during tests and was dropped.^[57] The Ju 87 D-series featured two coolant radiators underneath the inboard sections of the wings, while the oil cooler was relocated to the position formerly occupied by the single, undernose "chin" coolant radiator. The D-series also introduced an aerodynamically refined cockpit with better visibility and space.^[58] Armour protection was increased and a new dual-barrel 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 81Z machine gun with an extremely high rate of fire was installed in the rear defensive position. Engine power was increased again, the Jumo 211J now delivering 1,420 PS (1,044 kW or 1,400 hp).^[58] Bomb carrying ability was nearly quadrupled from 500 kg (1,100 lb) in the B-version to 1,800 kg (4,000 lb) in the D-version (max. load for short ranges, overload condition), a typical bomb load ranged from 500–1,200 kg (1,100–2,600 lb).^[59]

The internal fuel capacity of the Ju 87 D was raised to 800 L (of which 780 L were usable) by adding wing tanks while retaining the option to carry two 300 L drop tanks. Tests at Rechlin-Lärz Airfield revealed it made possible a flight duration of 2 hours and 15 minutes. With an extra two 300 L (80 US gal) fuel tanks, it could achieve four hours flight time.^[58]

The D-2 was a variant used as a glider tug by converting older D-series airframes. It was intended as the tropical version of the D-1 and had heavier armour to protect the crew from ground fire. The armour reduced its performance and caused the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe to "place no particular value on the production of the D-2".^[58] The D-3 was an improved D-1 with more armour for its ground-attack role. Some Ju 87 D-3s were designated D-3N or D-3 trop and fitted with night or tropical equipment.^[58] The D-4 designation applied to a prototype torpedo-bomber version, which could carry a 750–905 kg (1,653–1,995 lb)aerial torpedo on a PVC 1006 B rack—this setup would have had the capacity to carry the Luftorpedo LT 850, the German version of the well-proven Japanese Type 91 aerial torpedo of 848 kg (1,870 lb). The D-4 was to be converted from D-3 airframes and, in place of the carrier-specific Ju 87C series designs, operated from the aircraft carrier Graf Zeppelin.^[60] Other modifications included a flame eliminator and, unlike earlier D variants, two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon, while the radio operator/rear gunner's ammunition supply was increased by 1,000 to 2,000 rounds.^[61]

The Ju 87 D-5 was based on the D-3 design and was unique in the Ju 87 series as it had wings 0.6 metres (2 ft) longer than previous variants. The two 7.92 mm MG 17 wing guns were exchanged for more powerful 20 mm MG 151/20s to better suit the aircraft's ground-attack role. The window in the floor of the cockpit was reinforced and four, rather than the previous three, aileron hinges were installed. Higher diving speeds were obtained of 650 km/h (400 mph) up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft). The range was recorded as 715 km (444 mi) at ground level and 835 km (519 mi) at 5,000 m (16,000 ft).^[59]

The D-6, according to "Operating instructions, works document 2097", was built in limited numbers to train pilots on "rationalised versions". Due to shortages in raw materials, it did not go into mass production.^[62] The D-7 was another ground attack aircraft based on D-1 airframes upgraded to D-5 standard (armour, wing cannons, extended wing panels), while the D-8 was similar to the D-7 but based on D-3 airframes.^[62] The D-7 and D-8 were both were fitted with exhaust flame dampers, and could conduct night operations.^[62]

Production of the D-1 variant started in 1941 with 495 ordered. These aircraft were delivered between May 1941 and March 1942. The RLM wanted 832 machines produced from February 1941. The Weserflug company was tasked with their production. From June to September 1941, 40 Ju 87 Ds were expected to be built, increasing to 90 thereafter.^[63] Various production problems were encountered. One of the planned 48 was produced in July. Of the 25 the RLM hoped for in August 1941, none were delivered.^[63] In September did the first two of the planned 102 Ju 87s came off the production lines.^[64] The shortfalls continued to the end of 1941. During this time, the WFG plant in Lemwerder moved production to Berlin. Over 165 Ju 87s had not been delivered and production was only 23 Ju 87 Ds per month out of the 40 expected. By the spring of 1942 to the end of production in 1944, 3,300 Ju 87s, mostly D-1s, D-2s and D-5s had been manufactured.^[64]

In January 1943, a variety of Ju 87 Ds became "test beds" for the Ju 87 G variants. At the start of 1943, the coastal Luftwaffe Erprobungsstelle test centre at Tarnewitz tested this combination from a static position. Oberst G. Wolfgang Vorwald noted the experiments were not successful, and suggested the cannon be installed on the Messerschmitt Me 410.^[65] Testing continued, and on 31 January 1943, Ju 87 D-1 W.Nr 2552 was tested by HauptmannHans-Karl Stepp near the Briansk training area. Stepp noted the increase in drag, which reduced the aircraft's speed to 259 km/h (161 mph). Stepp also noted that the aircraft was also less agile than the existing D variants. D-1 and D-3 variants operated in combat with the 37 mm (1.5 in) BK 37 cannon in 1943.^[65]

With the G variant, the ageing airframe of the Ju 87 found new life as an anti-tank aircraft. This was the final operational version of the Stuka, and was deployed on the Eastern Front. The reversal in German military fortunes after 1943 and the appearance of huge numbers of well-armoured Soviet tanks caused Junkers to adapt the existing design to combat this new threat. The Henschel Hs 129 had proved a potent ground attack weapon, but its large fuel tanks made it vulnerable to enemy fire, prompting the RLM to say, "that in the shortest possible time a replacement of the Hs 129 type must take place."^[66] With Soviet tanks the priority targets, the development of a further variant as a successor to the Ju 87D began in November 1942. On 3 November, Milch raised the question of replacing the Ju 87, or redesigning it altogether. It was decided to keep the design as it was, but the power-plant was upgraded to a Junkers Jumo 211J, and two 37 mm (1.5 in) cannons were added. The variant was also designed to carry a 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) free-fall bomb load. Furthermore, the armoured protection of the Ilyushin Il-2Sturmovik^[d] was copied to protect the crew from ground fire now that the Ju 87 would be required to conduct low level attacks.^[67]

Hans-Ulrich Rudel, a Stuka ace, had suggested using two 37 mm (1.46 in) Flak 18 guns, each one in a self-contained under-wing gun pod, as the Bordkanone BK 3,7, after achieving success against Soviet tanks with the 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon. These gun pods were fitted to a Ju 87 D-1, W.Nr 2552. The first flight of the machine took place on 31 January 1943, piloted by Stepp.^[65] The continuing problems with about two dozen of the Ju 88P-1 and slow development of the Henschel Hs 129 B-3, both designs using the large, 7.5 cm Pak 40-based, autoloading Bordkanone 7,5 7.5 cm (2.95 in) cannon in a conformal gun pod beneath the fuselage, meant the Ju 87G was put into production. In April 1943, the first production Ju 87 G-1s were delivered to front line units.^[65] The two 37 mm (1.46 in) Bordkanone BK 3,7 cannons were mounted in under-wing gun pods, each loaded with two six-round magazines of armour-piercing tungsten carbide-cored ammunition. With these weapons, the Kanonenvogel ("cannon-bird"), as it was nicknamed, proved very successful in the hands of Stuka aces such as Rudel. The G-1 was converted from older D-series airframes, retaining the smaller wing, but without the dive brakes. The G-2 was similar to the G-1 except for use of the extended wing of the D-5. 208 G-2s were built and at least a further 22 more were converted from D-3 airframes. Only a handful of production Gs were committed in the Battle of Kursk. On the opening day of the offensive, Hans-Ulrich Rudel flew the only "official" Ju 87 G, although a significant number of Ju 87 D variants were fitted with the 37 mm (1.46 in) cannon, and operated as unofficial Ju 87 Gs before the battle. In June 1943, the RLM ordered 20 Ju 87Gs as production variants.^[68]

The Ju 87 had been used in the night intruder role in 1940 and 1941 during The Blitz,^[69] but the Soviet Air Force practice of harassing German ground forces using antiquated Polikarpov Po-2 and R-5biplanes at night to drop flares and fragmentation bombs, inspired the Luftwaffe to form its own Störkampfstaffeln (harassment squadrons). On 23 July 1942, Junkers offered the Ju 87 B-2, R-2 and R-4s with Flammenvernichter ("flame eliminators"). On 10 November 1943, the RLM GL/C-E2 Division finally authorised the design in directive No. 1117.^[70]

The need to equip night units and the phasing out of Ju 87s from ground attack groups in favour of the Fw 190, enabled the use of D-5 airframes awaiting repair and D-7 and 8s already in conversion units. The latter variants were either conversions or modified D-1 and D-3 air frames. Adding the necessary equipment, radios and dampeners was a requirement regardless of whether the aircraft was a production D-5 or a D-1 or 3 that had undergone wing changes. The change in designations due to conversions was not readily apparent, for with wing changes, the serial number and designation was applied to the fuselage by the manufacture which remained unaltered by wing changes. Some sub-contractors added an "N" designation (Nacht) for clarity on D-3 and 5s . Others added the roman numeral VII to the D-7s, perhaps to reflect that the aircraft was fitted with the FuG 7 radio. A great deal of confusion exists concerning the D-7. Its existence has been questioned, but the type is listed in Junkers company records and in the Der Reichsminister der Luftfahrt and Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe Technisches Amt. There was no production "nacht stuka", and modifications could vary according to the sub-contractor and depending on what parts were available.^[71]

A Stuka repair centre was set up at Wels-Lichtenegg. From May 1940 to November 1944, 746 were repaired and flight-tested there. In the winter 1943/44, the Metal Works Lower Saxony Brinckmann und Mergell company (Menibum) converted approximately 300 Ju 87D-3 and 5s to night versions. Dive-brakes were removed there, while gun muzzles and dampers were installed to eliminate exhaust and muzzle flash. The Jumo 211P engine was installed in some cases. It took 2,170 technicians and workers to carry out the conversions. Total figures for conversions to night flying operations are unknown. The company's equipment was seized by the Soviet Union at the end of the war, and the records were lost or destroyed.^[71] A main piece of equipment, hereto not installed in the Ju 87, was the FuG 101 Electronic Radio Altimeter. This was used to measure height. Some Ju 87s also used FuG 16Z transmitter/receiver set to augment the FuG 25 IFF (Identification Friend or Foe).^[71]

Pilots were also asked to complete the new "Blind Flying Certificate 3", which was especially introduced for this new type of operation. Pilots were trained at night, over unfamiliar terrain, and forced to rely on their instruments for direction. The Ju 87's standard Revi C12D gunsight was replaced with the new Nachtrevi ("Night revi") C12N. On some Ju 87s, the Revi 16D was exchanged for the Nachtrevi 16D. To help the pilot see his instrument panel, a violet light was installed.^[72]

On 15 November 1942, the Auxiliary Staffel was created. By mid-1943, Luftflotte 1 was given four Staffeln while Luftflotte 4 and Luftwaffe Kommando Ost (Luftwaffe Command East) were given six and two respectively. In the first half of 1943, 12 Nachtschlachtgruppen ("night battle groups"—NSGr) had been formed, flying a multitude of different types of aircraft, including the Ju 87, which proved itself ideally suited to the low-level slow flying needed.^[73] NSGr 1 and 2 fought with some success on the Western Front during the Battle of Normandy and Battle of the Bulge.^[74][75] NSGr 7 operated in "anti-partisan" role from bases in Albania from July 1944, replacing their use of German trainers.^[76] The 3rd and 4th group served on the Eastern Front, the 8th in the Arctic and the 9th in Italy.^[77] NSGr 20 fought against the Western Allied invasion of Germany in 1945. Photographic evidence exists of 16 NSGr 20 Ju 87s lining up to take-off in the woods circling the Lippe airfield, Germany while under attack from Republic P-47 Thunderbolts of the USAAF IX Tactical Air Command. The unit operated against the Ludendorff Bridge during the Battle of Remagen.^[78]

After evaluating Ju 87 operations on the Eastern Front, Göring ordered production limited to 200 per month in total. General der Schlachtflieger ("General of Ground Attack"^[82]) Ernst Kupfer decided continued development would "hardly bring any further tactical value". Adolf Galland, a fighter pilot with operational and combat experience in ground attack, said that abandoning development would be premature, but 150 machines per month would be sufficient.^[81]

On 28 July 1943, strike and bomber production was to be scaled down, and fighter and bomber destroyer production given priority. On 3 August 1943, Milch contradicted this and declared that this increase in fighter production would not affect production of the Ju 87, Ju 188, Ju 288 and Ju 290. This was an important consideration as the life expectancy of a Ju 87 had been reduced (since 1941) from 9.5 months to 5.5 months to just 100 operational flying hours.^[83] On 26 October, Kupfer reported the Ju 87 could no longer survive in operations and that the Focke-Wulf Fw 190F should take its place. Milch finally agreed and ordered the minimal continuance of Ju 87 D-3 and D-5 production for a smooth transition period.^[83] In May 1944, production wound down. 78 Ju 87s were built in May and 69 rebuilt from damaged machines. In the next six months, 438 Ju 87 Ds and Gs were added to the Ju 87 force as new or repaired aircraft. It is unknown whether any Ju 87s were built from parts unofficially after December 1944 and the end of production.^[83]

Overall, 550 Ju 87 As and B2s were completed at the Junkers factory in Dessau. Production of the Ju 87 R and D variants was transferred to the Weserflug company, which produced 5,930 of the 6,500 Ju 87s produced in total.^[84] During the course of the war, little damage was done to the WFG plant at Lemwerder. Attacks throughout 1940-45 caused little lasting damage and succeeded only in damaging some Ju 87 airframes, in contrast to the Focke-Wulf plant in Bremen.^[85] At Berlin-Tempelhof, little delay or damage was caused to Ju 87 production, despite the heavy bombings and large-scale destruction inflicted on other targets. The WFG again went unscathed. The Junkers factory at Dessau was heavily attacked, but not until Ju 87 production had ceased. The Ju 87 repair facility at the Wels aircraft works was destroyed on 30 May 1944, and the site abandoned Ju 87 links.^[86]

Among the many German aircraft designs that participated in the Condor Legion, and as part of other German involvement in the Spanish Civil War, a single Ju 87 A-0 (the V4 prototype) was allocated serial number 29-1 and was assigned to the VJ/88, the experimental Staffel of the Legion's fighter wing. The aircraft was secretly loaded onto the ship Usaramo and departed Hamburg harbour on the night of 1 August 1936, arriving in Cádiz five days later. The only known information pertaining to its combat career in Spain is that it was piloted by Unteroffizier Herman Beuer, and took part in the Nationalistoffensive against Bilbao in 1937. Presumably the aircraft was then secretly returned to Germany.^[87]

En enero de 1938, llegaron tres Ju 87 A de la Legión Cóndor. Se hicieron evidentes varios problemas: el tren de aterrizaje con carenado se hundía en las superficies fangosas del aeródromo, y los carenados se retiraron temporalmente. La carga máxima de bombas de 500 kg (1100 lb) solo podía transportarse si el artillero abandonaba su asiento, por lo que la carga de bombas se limitó a 250 kg (550 lb) . Estos aviones apoyaron a las fuerzas nacionalistas y llevaron a cabo misiones antibuque hasta que regresaron a Alemania en octubre de 1938. ^{[ 87 ]} Durante la Ofensiva de Cataluña en enero de 1939, el Junkers Ju 87 regresó a España. En la mañana del 21 de enero de 1939, 34 Heinkel He 111 , junto con algunos escoltas y tres Ju 87B, atacaron el Puerto de Barcelona , ​​cinco días antes de que la ciudad fuera capturada por los nacionalistas. ^{[ 88 ]} 29 combatientes republicanos estaban defendiendo la ciudad. Había más de 100 aeronaves operando sobre la ciudad y, mientras un Ju 87 bombardeaba en picado un barco, un piloto republicano de un Polikarpov I-15 , Francisco Alférez Jiménez, afirmó haberlo destruido cerca de El Vendrell , en Comarruga , pero el Stuka fue capaz de aterrizar en la playa sin estrellarse. Esa fue la única vez que un Stuka atacó la capital de Cataluña . ^{[ 89 ]} El 24 de enero de 1939, un grupo de Stukas impidió la destrucción de un puente cerca de Barcelona ametrallando a los ingenieros de demolición en Molins de Rei . Durante el ataque, los defensores terrestres republicanos, equipados con un montaje cuádruple PM M1910 , alcanzaron a un piloto (Heinz Bohne) en ambas piernas y el Stuka se estrelló, hiriendo gravemente a Bohne y a su ametrallador, Albert Conrad. Estos dos fueron las únicas bajas de Stuka en la guerra. ^{[ 90 ]}    

Al igual que con el Ju 87 A-0, los B-1 fueron devueltos discretamente al Reich. ^{[ 91 ]} La experiencia de la Guerra Civil Española resultó invaluable: las tripulaciones aéreas y terrestres perfeccionaron sus habilidades y el equipo fue evaluado en condiciones de combate. Sin embargo, el Ju 87 no había sido probado contra una oposición de cazas numerosa y bien coordinada; esta lección se aprendió más tarde a un alto costo para las tripulaciones del Stuka. ^{[ 92 ]}

All Stuka units were moved to Germany's eastern border in preparation for the invasion of Poland. On the morning of 15 August 1939, during a mass-formation dive-bombing demonstration for high-ranking commanders of the Luftwaffe at Neuhammer training grounds near Sagan, 13 Ju 87s and 26 crew members were lost when they crashed into the ground almost simultaneously. The planes dived through clouds, expecting to release their practice bombs and pull out of the dive once below the cloud ceiling. They were unaware that the ceiling was too low and unexpected ground mist formed, leaving them no time to pull out of the dive.^[93]

Poland

On 1 September 1939, the Wehrmacht invaded Poland, beginning World War II. Generalquartiermeister der Luftwaffe records indicate a total force of 366 Ju 87 A and Bs were available for operations on 31 August 1939.^[28] The first Ju 87 operation was to destroy Polish demolition charges fixed to the rail bridges over the Vistula, that linked Eastern Germany to the Danzig corridor and East Prussia as well as Polish Pomerania. To do this, Ju 87s were ordered to perform a low-level attack on the Polish Army Garrison headquarters. II. and III./StG 1 targeted the cables along the embankment, the electricity plant and signal boxes at Dirschau (now Tczew, Poland. At exactly 04:26 CET, a Kette ("chain" or flight of three) of Ju 87s of 3./StG 1 led by StaffelkapitänOberleutnant Bruno Dilly carried out the first bombing attack of the war. The Stukas attacked 11 minutes before the official German declaration of hostilities and hit the targets. The Ju 87s achieved complete success. The mission failed as the German Army delayed their advance allowing the Poles to carry out repairs and destroy all but one of the bridges before the Germans could reach them.^[46][94][95]

Un Ju 87 logró la primera victoria aérea durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial en la mañana del 1 de septiembre de 1939, cuando el Rottenführer Leutnant Frank Neubert del I./ StG 2 "Immelmann" derribó un caza polaco PZL P.11c mientras despegaba del aeródromo de Balice ; su piloto, el capitán Mieczysław Medwecki, murió. En combate aire-aire, las formaciones de Ju 87 estaban bien protegidas por los cazas alemanes y las pérdidas fueron escasas frente a la tenaz, pero efímera, oposición. ^{[ 96 ]}

Los Ju 87 volvieron a las misiones de ataque terrestre para la campaña después de los ataques aéreos iniciales. Los Ju 87 participaron en los controvertidos pero efectivos ataques en Wieluń . La falta de artillería antiaérea en el Ejército Polaco magnificó el impacto del Ju 87. En Piotrków Trybunalski , el I./StG 76 y el I./StG 2 destruyeron una división de infantería polaca que se estaba desmantelando allí. Los trenes de tropas también eran blancos fáciles. El StG 77 destruyó uno de esos objetivos en Radomsko . ^{[ 97 ]} Durante la Batalla de Radom, seis divisiones polacas atrapadas por las fuerzas alemanas que las rodeaban se vieron obligadas a rendirse después de un implacable bombardeo de cuatro días por parte de los StG 51, 76 y 77. En este asalto se emplearon bombas de fragmentación de 50 kg (110 lb) , que causaron graves bajas a las tropas terrestres polacas. Desmoralizados, los polacos se rindieron. Los Stukas también participaron en la Batalla de Bzura, que resultó en la ruptura de la resistencia polaca. Las alas de bombarderos en picado ( Sturzkampfgeschwader ) lanzaron por sí solas 388 toneladas (428 toneladas) de bombas durante esta batalla. ^{[ 98 ]} Durante el Sitio de Varsovia y la Batalla de Modlin , las alas de Ju 87 contribuyeron a la derrota de las fuerzas polacas bien atrincheradas y resueltas. El IV(Stuka)./ LG 1 fue particularmente eficaz en la destrucción de la fortificada Modlin . ^{[ 99 ]}    

The Luftwaffe had a few anti-shipping naval units such as 4.(St)/TrGr 186 to deal with Polish naval forces. This unit performed effectively, sinking the 1540-ton destroyer Wicher and the minelayer Gryf of the Polish Navy (both moored in a harbour).^[96] The torpedo boat Mazur (412 tons) was sunk at Oksywie; the gunboat General Haller (441 tons) was sunk in Hel Harbour on 6 September—during the Battle of Hel—along with the minesweeper Mewa (183 tons) and its sister ships Czapla and Jaskolka with several auxiliaries. The Polish naval units trapped in the Baltic were destroyed by Ju 87 operations.^[100] Once again, enemy air opposition was light, and the Stukawaffe (Stuka force) lost 31 aircraft during the campaign.^[101]

Norway

Operation Weserübung began on 9 April 1940 with the invasions of Norway and Denmark. Denmark capitulated within the day; Norway continued to resist with British and French help. The campaign was not a Blitzkrieg of fast-moving armoured divisions supported by air power as the mountainous terrain ruled out close Panzer/Stuka cooperation. Instead, the Germans relied on paratroops transported by Junkers Ju 52s and specialised ski troops. The Ju 87s were given the role of ground attack and anti-shipping missions; they proved to be the most effective weapon in the Luftwaffe's armoury carrying out the latter task.^[101]

El 9 de abril, los primeros Stukas despegaron a las 10:59 de aeródromos ocupados para destruir la fortaleza de Oscarsborg , tras la pérdida del crucero alemán Blücher , que interrumpió los desembarcos anfibios en Oslo a través del fiordo de Oslo . Los 22 Ju 87 habían ayudado a suprimir a los defensores noruegos durante la posterior batalla del estrecho de Drøbak , pero los defensores no se rindieron hasta después de la captura de Oslo. Como resultado, la operación naval alemana fracasó. ^{[ 102 ]} El StG 1 alcanzó al  destructor noruego Æger, de 735 toneladas, frente a Stavanger y lo impactó en la sala de máquinas. El Æger encalló y fue hundido. ^{[ 103 ]} Las alas del Stuka estaban ahora equipadas con el nuevo Ju 87 R, que se diferenciaba del Ju 87 B por tener una mayor capacidad interna de combustible y dos tanques de combustible externos de 300 l bajo las alas para un mayor alcance. ^{[ 101 ]}

Los Stukas tuvieron numerosos éxitos contra buques de guerra aliados y, en particular, contra la Royal Navy, que representaba una formidable amenaza para las operaciones navales y costeras alemanas. El crucero pesado británico HMS Suffolk fue atacado el 17 de abril. Su popa quedó prácticamente destruida, pero logró regresar a Scapa Flow con 33 tripulantes muertos y 38 heridos. El escuadrón de cruceros ligeros, compuesto por los buques gemelos Curacoa y Curlew, fue sometido a largos ataques que dañaron gravemente al primero, con la pérdida de un Ju 87. Un testigo declaró posteriormente: «Amenazaban con llevarse nuestro mástil con ellos en cada inmersión estremecedora y angustiosa». ^{[ 104 ]} El mismo destino casi le sobrevino a la balandra Black Swan . El 27 de abril, una bomba atravesó la cubierta de popa, un camarote de oficiales, un tanque de agua y un  polvorín de municiones de 4 pulgadas (10,2 cm) y salió por el casco para explotar en el fiordo. La explosión amortiguada limitó los daños a su casco. El Black Swan disparó 1000 proyectiles, pero no logró derribar a ninguno de sus atacantes. La balandra HMS Bittern  fue hundida el 30 de abril. El gran destructor francés Bison fue hundido junto con el HMS Afridi  por el Sturzkampfgeschwader 1 el 3 de mayo de 1940 durante la evacuación de Namsos. El polvorín de proa del Bison fue alcanzado, matando a 108 tripulantes. El Afridi , que había rescatado a algunos de los supervivientes del Bison , fue hundido en un ataque posterior con la pérdida de 63 marineros. ^{[ 103 ]} 49 oficiales y hombres, 13 soldados y 33 supervivientes del Bison se perdieron a bordo del Afridi . ^{[ 105 ]} Todos los barcos fueron atacados. Se utilizaron arrastreros armados bajo el paraguas aéreo alemán en un intento de crear objetivos más pequeños. Dichas embarcaciones no estaban blindadas ni provistas de armas antiaéreas. Los Ju 87 lo demostraron el 30 de abril al hundir el Jardine (452 ​​toneladas) y el Warwickshire (466 toneladas). El 15 de mayo, el transporte de tropas polaco Chrobry (11.442 toneladas) fue hundido. ^{[ 106 ] [ 107 ] [ 108 ]}

The Stukas also had an operational effect, even when little damage was done. On 1 May 1940, Vice AdmiralLionel Wells commanded a Home Fleet expedition of seven destroyers, the heavy cruiser Berwick, the aircraft carriers Glorious and Ark Royal, and the battleship Valiant. The carriers mounted fighter patrols over the ships evacuating troops from Andalsnes. The Stuka waves (accompanied by He 111s) achieved several near misses, but were unable to obtain a hit. Nevertheless, Wells ordered that no ship was to operate within range of the Ju 87s' Norwegian airfields. The Ju 87s had, in effect, driven British sea power from the Norwegian coast. Moreover, Victor reported to the Commander-in-Chief of the Home Fleet, Admiral Charles Forbes, that carrier operations were no longer practical under the current conditions.^[109]

In the following weeks, StG 1 continued their sea operations. Off Namsos on 5 May 1940, they caught and sank the Royal Norwegian Navy transports Aafjord (335 tons) and Blaafjeld (1,146 tons). The Ju 87s then took to bombing the town and the airstrip to support the German forces under the command of Eduard Dietl. The town fell in the first week of May. In the remaining four weeks of the campaign in Norway, the Ju 87s supported German forces in containing the Allied land forces in Narvik until they withdrew in early June.^[105]

France and the Low Countries

The Ju 87 units had learned lessons from the Polish and Norwegian campaigns. The failures in Poland, and of the Stukas of I./StG 1 to silence the Oscarsborg fort, ensured even more attention was paid to pin-point bombing during the Phoney War period. This was to pay off in the Western campaign.^[110]

Cuando comenzó la Operación Fall Gelb (Caso Amarillo) el 10 de mayo de 1940, el Stuka ayudó a neutralizar rápidamente la fortaleza de Eben Emael , Bélgica. El cuartel general del comandante responsable de ordenar la destrucción de los puentes controlados por el Ejército belga a lo largo del Canal Alberto estaba ubicado en el pueblo de Lanaken (14  km/8,7  mi al norte). El Stuka demostró su precisión cuando el pequeño edificio fue destruido por cuatro impactos directos. Como resultado, solo uno de los tres puentes fue destruido, lo que permitió al Ejército alemán avanzar rápidamente en los primeros días de la Batalla de Bélgica . ^{[ 110 ]} El Ju 87 demostró ser un activo útil para el Grupo de Ejércitos B en los Países Bajos . En batallas campales contra las fuerzas blindadas francesas en Hannut y Gembloux , los Ju 87 neutralizaron eficazmente la artillería y los blindados. ^{[ 111 ]}

Los Ju 87 también prestaron apoyo a las fuerzas alemanas en la Batalla de los Países Bajos . La Armada holandesa, en colaboración con la británica, evacuaba a la familia real holandesa y las reservas de oro holandesas a través de los puertos del país. Los Ju 87 hundieron los buques holandeses Jan Van Galen (1316 toneladas) y Johan Maurits Van Nassau (1520 toneladas) mientras proporcionaban apoyo de artillería costera en Waalhaven y el Afsluitdijk . El buque británico Valentine quedó inutilizado, varado y hundido, mientras que el Winchester , el Whitley y el Westminster sufrieron daños. El Whitley fue varado y hundido posteriormente tras un ataque aéreo el 19 de mayo. ^{[ 111 ]}

The Ju 87 units were also instrumental in the Battle of France. It was here that most of the Ju 87-equipped units were concentrated. They assisted in the breakthrough at Sedan, the critical and first major land battle of the war on French territory. The Stukawaffe flew 300 sorties against French positions, with StG 77 alone flying 201 individual missions. The Ju 87s benefited from heavy fighter protection from Messerschmitt Bf 109 units.^[112] When resistance was organised, the Ju 87s could be vulnerable. For example, on 12 May, near Sedan, six French Curtiss H-75s from Groupe de Chasse I/5 (Group Interception) attacked a formation of Ju 87s, claiming 11 out of 12 unescorted Ju 87s without loss (the Germans recorded six losses over Sedan entire).^[113][114] For the most part, Allied opposition was disorganised. During the battles of Montcornet, Arras, Bolougne, and Calais, Ju 87 operations broke up counterattacks and offered pin-point aerial artillery support for German infantry.^[115]

The Luftwaffe benefited from excellent ground-to-air communications throughout the campaign. Radio equipped forward liaison officers could call upon the Stukas and direct them to attack enemy positions along the axis of advance. In some cases the Stukas responded in 10–20 minutes. OberstleutnantHans Seidemann (Richthofen's Chief of Staff) said that "never again was such a smoothly functioning system for discussing and planning joint operations achieved."^[116]

Durante la Batalla de Dunkerque , muchos barcos aliados se perdieron en ataques de Ju 87 mientras evacuaban tropas británicas y francesas . El destructor francés L'Adroit fue hundido el 21 de mayo de 1940, seguido por el vapor de ruedas Crested Eagle el 28 de mayo. El vapor francés Côte d'Arzur (3047 toneladas) corrió la misma suerte. Los Ju 87 operaban con la máxima eficacia cuando las condiciones meteorológicas lo permitían. Las unidades de cazas de la RAF se mantenían a distancia y la cobertura aérea aliada era irregular en el mejor de los casos. El 29 de mayo, el destructor de la Royal Navy HMS Grenade sufrió graves daños por un ataque de Ju 87 dentro del puerto de Dunkerque y posteriormente se hundió. El destructor francés Mistral quedó inutilizado por los bombardeos ese mismo día. El Jaguar y el Verity sufrieron graves daños, mientras que los arrastreros Calvi y Polly Johnson (363 y 290 toneladas) se desintegraron bajo el bombardeo. El buque mercante Fenella (2376 toneladas) fue hundido tras embarcar a 600 soldados. Los ataques detuvieron la evacuación durante un tiempo. Los transbordadores Lorina y Normannia (1564 y 1567 toneladas) también fueron hundidos. ^{[ 117 ]} Para el 29 de mayo, los Aliados habían perdido 31 buques hundidos y 11 dañados. ^{[ 118 ]} El 1 de junio, los Ju 87 hundieron el dragaminas Skipjack de la clase Halcyon , mientras que el destructor Keith fue hundido y el Basilisk quedó inutilizado antes de ser hundido por el Whitehall . El Whitehall resultó gravemente dañado y, junto con el Ivanhoe , regresó a duras penas a Dover . El Havant , comisionado durante solo tres semanas, fue hundido y, por la noche, el destructor francés Foudroyant se hundió tras un ataque masivo. Se reclamaron más victorias contra la navegación antes del anochecer del 1 de junio. El vapor Pavon se perdió mientras transportaba a 1500 soldados holandeses, la mayoría de los cuales murieron. El petrolero Níger también fue destruido. Una flotilla de dragaminas franceses también se perdió: el Denis Papin (264 toneladas), el Le Moussaillon (380 toneladas) y el Venus (264 toneladas). ^{[ 119 ]}

En total, se perdieron 89 mercantes (de 126.518 toneladas de registro bruto), y de los 40 destructores de la Marina Real utilizados en la batalla, ocho fueron hundidos (uno por una lancha torpedera y otro por un submarino), y otros 23 resultaron dañados y fuera de servicio. ^{[ 120 ]} La campaña terminó tras la rendición francesa el 25 de junio de 1940. El poder aéreo aliado había sido ineficaz y desorganizado, y como resultado, las pérdidas de Stuka se debieron principalmente al fuego antiaéreo. 120 aviones, un tercio de la fuerza de Stuka, fueron destruidos o dañados por todas las causas entre el 10 de mayo y el 25 de junio de 1940. ^{[ 121 ]}

Norte de África y el Mediterráneo

Tras las derrotas italianas en la guerra ítalo-griega y la Operación Compass en el norte de África, el Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ordenó el despliegue de fuerzas alemanas en estos teatros de operaciones. Entre el contingente de la Luftwaffe desplegado se encontraba la unidad de mando StG 3, que aterrizó en Sicilia en diciembre de 1940. En los días siguientes, dos grupos —80 Stukas— fueron desplegados bajo el mando del X. Fliegerkorps .

La primera tarea del Korps fue atacar los buques británicos que transitaban entre Sicilia y África, en particular los convoyes destinados a reabastecer Malta . Los Ju 87 se hicieron notar por primera vez sometiendo al portaaviones británico HMS Illustrious  a un intenso ataque. Las tripulaciones confiaban en poder hundirlo, ya que la cubierta de vuelo tenía una superficie de aproximadamente 6500 m² (70 000 pies cuadrados ⁾ . ^{[ 132 ]} El 10 de enero de 1941, se les comunicó a las tripulaciones de los Stuka que cuatro impactos directos con bombas de 500 kg (1100 lb) serían suficientes para hundir el portaaviones. Los Ju 87 lograron seis impactos directos y tres impactos cercanos que causaron daños, pero los motores del barco resultaron ilesos y este llegó al puerto asediado de Malta . ^{[ 133 ]}     

The Regia Aeronautica was equipped for a while with the Stukas.^[134] In 1939, the Italian government asked the RLM to supply 100 Ju 87s. Italian pilots were sent to Graz in Austria to be trained for dive-bombing aircraft. In the spring of 1940, between 72 and 108 Ju 87 B-1s, some of them ex-Luftwaffe aircraft, were delivered to 96° Gruppo Bombardamento a Tuffo. The Italian Stuka, renamed Picchiatello, was in turn assigned to Gruppi 97°, 101° and 102°. The Picchiatelli were used against Malta, Allied convoys in Mediterranean and in North Africa (where they took part in conquering Tobruk). They were used by the Regia Aeronautica up to 1942.^[134]

Some of the Picchiatelli saw action in the opening phase of the Italian invasion of Greece in October 1940. Their numbers were low and ineffective in comparison to German operations. The Italian forces were quickly pushed back. By early 1941, the Greeks had pushed into Italian-occupied Albania. Once again, Hitler decided to send military aid to his ally.^[135] Before the Luftwaffe could intervene, the Italian Ju 87s achieved some successes. 97 Gruppo (group) and its 239 Squadriglia (squadron) sinking the Hellenic Navy freighter Susanah off Corfu on 4 April 1941 while the torpedo boat Proussa was sunk later in the day. On 21 April the Greek freighter Ioanna was sunk and they accounted for the British tanker Hekla off Tobruk on 25 May and then the Royal Australian Navy destroyer Waterhen on 20 June. The British gunboat Cricket and supply submarine Cachalot became victims. The former was crippled and later sunk by Italian warships.^[136]

In March, the pro-German Yugoslav government was toppled. A furious Hitler ordered the attack to be expanded to include Yugoslavia. Operation Marita commenced on 7 April. The Luftwaffe committed StG 1, 2 and 77 to the campaign.^[137] The Stuka once again spearheaded the air assault, with a front line strength of 300 machines, against minimal Yugoslav resistance in the air, allowing the Stukas to develop a fearsome reputation in this region. Operating unmolested, they took a heavy toll of ground forces, suffering only light losses to ground fire. The effectiveness of the dive bombers helped bring about Yugoslav capitulation in ten days. The Stukas also took a peripheral part in Operation Punishment, Hitler's retribution bombing of Belgrade. The dive bombers were to attack airfields and anti-aircraft gun positions as the level bombers struck civilian targets. Belgrade was badly damaged, with 2,271 people killed and 12,000 injured.^[138]

In Greece, despite British aid, little air opposition was encountered. As the Allies withdrew and resistance collapsed, the Allies began evacuating to Crete. The Stukas inflicted severe damage on Allied shipping. On 22 April, the 1,389 ton destroyers Psara and Ydra were sunk. In the next two days, the Greek naval base at Piraeus lost 23 vessels to Stuka attack.^[139]

Durante la Batalla de Creta , los Ju 87 también desempeñaron un papel significativo. El 21 y 22 de mayo de 1941, los alemanes intentaron enviar refuerzos a Creta por mar, pero perdieron 10 buques ante la "Fuerza D" bajo el mando del Contralmirante Irvine Glennie . La fuerza, compuesta por los cruceros HMS Dido  , Orion y Ajax , obligó a los buques alemanes restantes a retirarse. Los Stuka fueron llamados para hacer frente a la amenaza naval británica. ^{[ 140 ]} El 21 de mayo, el destructor HMS Juno  fue hundido y al día siguiente el acorazado HMS Warspite  resultó dañado y el crucero HMS Gloucester  fue hundido, con la pérdida de 45 oficiales y 648 marineros. Los Ju 87 también inutilizaron al crucero HMS Fiji  esa mañana (que más tarde fue rematado por cazabombarderos Bf 109 ) mientras hundían al destructor HMS Greyhound  con un solo impacto. ^{[ 141 ]} Al concluir la batalla de Creta, los Aliados iniciaron otra retirada. El 23 de mayo, la Marina Real perdió los destructores HMS Kashmir  y Kelly , seguidos por el HMS Hereward  el 26 de mayo; el Orion y el Dido también sufrieron graves daños. ^{[ 142 ]} El Orion había estado evacuando a 1100 soldados al norte de África; 260 de ellos murieron y otros 280 resultaron heridos. ^{[ 143 ]}

El ala de bombarderos en picado apoyó al Afrika Korps del Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel en su campaña de dos años en el norte de África; su otra tarea principal era atacar la navegación aliada. ^{[ 144 ]} En 1941, las operaciones del Ju 87 en el norte de África estuvieron dominadas por el Sitio de Tobruk , que duró más de siete meses. ^{[ 145 ]} Sirvió durante la Batalla de Gazala y la Primera Batalla de El Alamein , así como la decisiva Segunda Batalla de El Alamein , que obligó a Rommel a regresar a Túnez . A medida que la marea cambió y el poder aéreo aliado creció en el otoño de 1942, el Ju 87 se volvió muy vulnerable y las pérdidas fueron cuantiosas. La entrada de los estadounidenses en el norte de África con la Operación Torch, la invasión del norte de África francés, empeoró mucho la situación; el Stuka estaba obsoleto en lo que ahora era una guerra de cazabombarderos. El Bf 109 y el Fw 190 podían al menos combatir a los cazas enemigos en igualdad de condiciones después de lanzar su armamento , pero el Stuka no. La vulnerabilidad del Ju 87 quedó demostrada el 11 de noviembre de 1942, cuando 15 Ju 87D fueron derribados por Curtiss P-40 F de las Fuerzas Aéreas del Ejército de los Estados Unidos (USAAF) en cuestión de minutos. ^{[ 146 ]} Según Ring y Shores, había 15 Ju 87 en la misión; el 2.º Escuadrón de la SAAF derribó ocho, cuatro de ellos probables, y tres fueron derribados por el 57.º Grupo de Caza. Dos sudafricanos y un estadounidense fueron derribados por la escolta de cazas alemana. Tres tripulaciones de Stuka fueron capturadas y una resultó herida. ^{[ 147 ]}

Para 1943, los Aliados gozaban de la supremacía aérea en el norte de África. Los Ju 87 solo se aventuraban en formación Rotte , y a menudo arrojaban sus bombas al primer avistamiento de aviones enemigos. ^{[ 148 ]} Para colmo, los cazas alemanes solo tenían suficiente combustible para cubrir a los Ju 87 durante el despegue, su punto más vulnerable. Después de eso, los Stukas estaban solos. ^{[ 149 ]}

The dive bombers continued operations in southern Europe; after the Italian surrender in September 1943, the Ju 87 participated in the last campaign-sized victory over the Western Allies, the Dodecanese Campaign. The Dodecanese Islands had been occupied by the British; the Luftwaffe committed 75 Stukas of StG 3 based in Megara (I./StG 3) and Argos (II.StG 3; from 17 October on Rhodes), to recover the islands. With the RAF bases 500 kilometres (310 mi) away, the Ju 87 helped the German landing forces rapidly conquer the islands.^[150] On 5 October the minelayer Lagnano was sunk along with a patrol vessel, a steam ship and the auxiliary landing ship Porto Di Roma. On 24 October Ju 87s sank the landing craft LCT-115 and cargo ship Taganrog at Samos. On 31 October the light cruiser Aurora was put out of action for a year. The light cruisers Penelope and Carlisle were badly damaged by StG 3 and the destroyer Panther was also sunk by Ju 87s before the capitulation of the Allied force. It proved to be the Stuka's final victory against the British.^[151]

Eastern front

Barbarossa; 1941

On 22 June 1941, the Wehrmacht commenced Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. The Luftwaffe order of battle of 22 June 1941 contained four dive bomber wings. VIII. Fliegerkorps was equipped with units Stab, II. and III./StG 1. Also included were Stab, I., II. and III. of Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 Immelmann. Attached to II. Fliegerkorps, under the command of General der FliegerBruno Loerzer, were Stab, I., II. and III. of StG 77. Luftflotte 5, under the command of GeneraloberstHans-Jürgen Stumpff, operating from Norway's Arctic Circle, were allotted IV. Gruppe (St)/Lehrgeschwader 1 (LG 1).^[152]

The first Stuka loss on the Soviet-German front occurred early at 03:40–03:47 in the morning of 22 June. While being escorted by Bf 109s from JG 51 to attack Brest Fortress, Oberleutnant Karl Führing of StG 77 was shot down by an I-153.^[153] The dive bomber wing suffered only two losses on the opening day of Barbarossa. As a result of the Luftwaffe's attention, the Soviet Air Force in the western Soviet Union was nearly destroyed. The official report claimed 1,489 Soviet aircraft destroyed. Even Göring was unable to believe such a high total and ordered this checked. After picking their way through the wreckage across the front, Luftwaffe officers found that the tally exceeded 2,000.^[154] In the next two days, the Soviets reported the loss of another 1,922 aircraft.^[155]

The Ju 87 took a huge toll on Soviet ground forces, helping to break up counterattacks of Soviet armour, eliminating strongpoints and disrupting the enemy supply lines. A demonstration of the Stuka's effectiveness occurred on 5 July, when StG 77 knocked out 18 trains and 500 vehicles.^[156] As the 1st and 2nd Panzer Groups forced bridgeheads across the Dnieper river and closed in on Kyiv, the Ju 87s again rendered invaluable support. On 13 September, Stukas from StG 1 destroyed the rail network in the vicinity as well as inflicting heavy casualties on escaping Red Army columns, for the loss of one Ju 87.^[157] On 23 September, Rudel (who was to become the most decorated serviceman in the Wehrmacht) of StG 2, helped sink the Soviet battleship Marat, during an air attack on Kronstadt harbour near Leningrad, which was struck by two 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) bombs.^[158] During this action, LeutnantEgbert Jaeckel sank the destroyer Minsk, while the destroyer Steregushchiy and submarine M-74 were also sunk. The Stukas also crippled the battleship Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya and the destroyers Silnyy and Grozyashchiy in exchange for two Ju 87s shot down.^[159]

Elsewhere on the Eastern front, the Junkers assisted Army Group Centre in its drive toward Moscow. From 13 to 22 December 420 vehicles and 23 tanks were destroyed by StG 77, greatly improving the morale of the German infantry, who were by now on the defensive.^[160] StG 77 finished the campaign as the most effective dive bomber wing. It had destroyed 2,401 vehicles, 234 tanks, 92 artillery batteries and 21 trains for the loss of 25 Ju 87s to hostile action.^[161] At the end of Barbarossa, StG 1 had lost 60 Stukas in aerial combat and one on the ground. StG 2 lost 39 Ju 87s in the air and two on the ground, StG 77 lost 29 of their dive-bombers in the air and three on the ground (25 to enemy action). IV.(St)/LG1, operating from Norway, lost 24 Ju 87s, all in aerial combat.^[162]

Fall Blau to Stalingrad; 1942

In early 1942, the Ju 87s gave the Heer yet more valuable support. On 29 December 1941, the Soviet 44th Army landed on the Kerch Peninsula. The Luftwaffe was only able to dispatch meager reinforcements of four bomber groups (Kampfgruppen) and two dive bomber groups belonging to StG 77. With air superiority, the Ju 87s operated with impunity. In the first 10 days of the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula, half the landing force was destroyed, while sea lanes were blocked by the Stukas inflicting heavy losses on Soviet shipping. The Ju 87's effectiveness against Soviet armour was not yet potent. Later versions of the T-34 tank could withstand Stuka attacks in general, unless a direct hit was scored but the Soviet 44th Army had only obsolescent types with thin armour which were nearly all destroyed.^[163] During the Battle of Sevastopol, the Stukas repeatedly bombed the trapped Soviet forces. Some Ju 87 pilots flew up to 300 sorties against the Soviet defenders. StG 77 (Luftflotte 4) flew 7,708 combat sorties dropping 3,537 tonnes of bombs on the city. Their efforts help secure the capitulation of Soviet forces on 4 July.^[164]

For the German summer offensive, Fall Blau, the Luftwaffe had concentrated 1,800 aircraft into Luftflotte 4 making it the largest and most powerful air command in the world.^[165] The Stukawaffe strength stood at 151.^[166] During the Battle of Stalingrad, Stukas flew thousands of sorties against Soviet positions in the city. StG 1, 2 and 77 flew 320 sorties on 14 October 1942. As the German Sixth Army pushed the Soviets into a 1,000-metre enclave on the west bank of the Volga River, 1,208 Stuka sorties were flown against this small strip of land. The intense air attack, though causing horrific losses on Soviet units, failed to destroy them.^[167] The Luftwaffe's Stuka force made a maximum effort during this phase of the war. They flew an average of 500 sorties per day and caused heavy losses among Soviet forces, losing an average of only one Stuka per day. The Battle of Stalingrad marked the high point in the fortunes of the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka. As the strength of the Soviet Air Forces grew, they gradually wrested control of the skies from the Luftwaffe. From this point onward, Stuka losses increased.^[168]

Kursk and decline; 1943

El Stuka también participó activamente en la Operación Ciudadela, la ofensiva de Kursk. La Luftwaffe desplegó los escuadrones I, II, III./St.G 1 y III./StG 3 bajo el mando de la Luftflotte 6. Los escuadrones I, II y III de los StG 2 y 3 fueron desplegados bajo el mando del Fliegerkorps VIII. ^{[ 169 ]} Los Ju 87 G equipados con cañones de Rudel tuvieron un efecto devastador sobre el blindaje soviético en Orel y Belgorod . Los Ju 87 participaron en una enorme contraofensiva aérea que duró del 16 al 31 de julio contra una ofensiva soviética en Khotynets y salvaron a dos ejércitos alemanes del cerco, reduciendo al 11.º Ejército de Guardias soviético atacante a 33 tanques para el 20 de julio. La ofensiva soviética había sido completamente detenida desde el aire ^{[ 170 ]} aunque las pérdidas fueron considerables. El Fliegerkorps VIII perdió ocho Ju 87 el 8 de julio, seis el 9 de julio, seis el 10 de julio y otros ocho el 11 de julio. El brazo Stuka también perdió ocho de sus poseedores de la Cruz de Caballero de la Cruz de Hierro . El StG 77 perdió 24 Ju 87 en el período del 5 al 31 de julio (el StG había perdido 23 en julio-diciembre de 1942), mientras que el StG 2 perdió otros 30 aviones en el mismo período. En septiembre de 1943, tres de las unidades Stuka fueron reequipadas con el Fw 190 F y G (versiones de ataque a tierra) y comenzaron a ser renombradas como Schlachtgeschwader (alas de ataque). ^{[ 171 ]} Frente a una oposición aérea abrumadora, el bombardero en picado requería una fuerte protección de cazas alemanes para contrarrestar a los cazas soviéticos. Algunas unidades como el SG 2 Immelmann continuaron operando con gran éxito durante 1943-45, utilizando las variantes Ju 87 G equipadas con  cañones de 37 mm, que se convirtieron en cazacarros, aunque en cantidades cada vez menores. ^{[ 172 ]}

In the wake of the defeat at Kursk, Ju 87s played a vital defensive role on the southern wing of the Eastern Front. To combat the Luftwaffe, the Soviets could deploy 3,000 fighter aircraft. As a result, the Stukas suffered heavily. SG 77 lost 30 Ju 87s in August 1943 as did SG 2 Immelmann, which also reported the loss of 30 aircraft in combat operations.^[173] Despite these losses, Ju 87s helped the XXIX Army Corps break out of an encirclement near the Sea of Azov.^[174] The Battle of Kiev also included substantial use of the Ju 87 units, although again, unsuccessful in stemming the advances. Stuka units were with the loss of air superiority, becoming vulnerable on the ground as well. Some Stuka aces were lost this way.^[175] In the aftermath of Kursk, Stuka strength fell to 184 aircraft in total. This was well below 50 per cent of the required strength.^[176] On 18 October 1943, StG 1, 2, 3, 5 and 77 were renamed Schlachtgeschwader (SG) wings, reflecting their ground-attack role, as these combat wings were now also using ground-attack aircraft, such as the Fw 190F-series aircraft. The Luftwaffe's dive-bomber units had ceased to exist.^[177]

A few Ju 87s were also retained for anti-shipping operations in the Black Sea, a role it had proved successful in when operating in the Mediterranean. In October 1943, this became evident again when StG 3 carried out several attacks against the Soviet Black Sea Fleet. On 6 October 1943 the most powerful flotilla in the fleet comprising the destroyer leaderKharkov, and the destroyers Besposhchadny and Sposobny were sunk. After the disaster, Josef Stalin decreed that no more ships were to pass within range of German aircraft without his personal permission.^[178]

Operation Bagration to Berlin 1944–1945

Towards the end of the war, as the Allies gained air supremacy, the Stuka was being replaced by ground-attack versions of the Fw 190.^[36] By early 1944, the number of Ju 87 units and operational aircraft terminally declined. For the Soviet summer offensive, Operation Bagration, 12 Ju 87 groups and five mixed groups (including Fw 190s) were on the Luftwaffe's order of battle on 26 June 1944.^[179]Gefechtsverband Kuhlmey, a mixed aircraft unit, which included large numbers of Stuka dive bombers, was rushed to the Finnish front in the summer of 1944 and was instrumental in halting the Soviet fourth strategic offensive. The unit claimed 200 Soviet tanks and 150 Soviet aircraft destroyed for 41 losses.^[180] By 31 January 1945, only 104 Ju 87s remained operational with their units. The other mixed Schlacht units contained a further 70 Ju 87s and Fw 190s between them. Chronic fuel shortages kept the Stukas grounded and sorties decreased until the end of the war in May 1945.^[181]

In the final months of the war the ground attack groups were still able to impose operational constraints upon the enemy. Most notably the aircraft participated in the defence of Berlin. On 12 January 1945 the 1st Belorussian Front initiated the Vistula–Oder Offensive. The offensive made rapid progress. The Soviets eventually outran their air support, which was unable to use forward, quagmire-filled, airfields. The Germans, who had fallen back on airbases with good facilities and concrete runways, were able to mount uninterrupted attacks against Soviet army columns. Reminiscent of the early years, the Luftwaffe was able to inflict high losses largely unopposed. Over 800 vehicles were destroyed within two weeks. In the first three days of February 1945, 2,000 vehicles and 51 tanks were claimed to be lost to German air attacks. The Ju 87 participated in these intense battles in small numbers. It was the largest concentration of German air power since 1940 and even in February 1945 the Germans were able to achieve and challenge for air superiority on the Eastern Front. The air offensive was instrumental in saving Berlin, albeit only for three months. The effort exhausted German fuel reserves. The contribution of the Ju 87 was exemplified by Rudel, who claimed 13 enemy tanks on 8 February 1945.^[182]

Post-war research revealed that generally, bombing pilots were far less effective than they claimed. The German Luftwaffe, in particular, did not do a scientific analysis of the Ju 87 pilot claims in 1939–1945 but instead relied on pre-war tests and assumptions, contrary to the Allies who did such research during the war, which showed that pilots, for a number of reasons, misjudged most of their tank kills and revealed the ineffectiveness of dive-bombers as an anti-tank weapon,^[183] except for the suppression effect of the bombing.

Louis Langhurst y Richard H. Kurzenberger construyeron réplicas a escala 7/10 . El avión de Langhurst pasó a formar parte de la Commemorative Air Force . El de Kurzenberger quedó inservible en un accidente en el que falleció el piloto en el año 2000. ^{[ 199 ]}

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