Articulo de referencia

Características superficiales comunes de Marte

Las características superficiales comunes de Marte incluyen vetas oscuras en laderas , huellas de remolinos de polvo , dunas de arena , la formación Medusae Fossae , terreno esc...

Las características superficiales comunes de Marte incluyen vetas oscuras en laderas , huellas de remolinos de polvo , dunas de arena , la formación Medusae Fossae , terreno escarpado , capas, barrancos, glaciares, topografía ondulada , terreno caótico , posibles ríos antiguos, cráteres de pedestal , terreno cerebral y cráteres de molde anular .

Evidencia de la antigua línea costera

Estudios recientes, en particular los del rover Zhurong de China y los datos orbitales que lo respaldan, proporcionan evidencia sólida de antiguas líneas costeras en las tierras bajas del norte de Marte, especialmente en Utopia Planitia. Los perfiles de radar de penetración terrestre recopilados a lo largo de un recorrido de 0,8 km detectaron 76 reflectores subsuperficiales con una inclinación uniforme de entre 6° y 20° (media ≈ 15°) a profundidades de 9 a 35 m, que coinciden estrechamente con los ángulos de estratificación frontal de las playas arenosas terrestres. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]

El análisis de la textura de los sedimentos indica que estas capas consisten en partículas del tamaño de la arena transportadas por ríos desde las tierras altas del sur y reelaboradas por la acción suave de las olas en lugar de por el viento o el flujo de lava. [ 3 ]

La datación por conteo de cráteres y las correlaciones estratigráficas delimitan la transgresión oceánica del norte a ≈ 3,68 Ga, con la regresión y la pérdida de agua superficial completadas hacia ≈ 3,42 Ga, lo que implica un intervalo de 200 a 300 Myr de condiciones costeras estables durante las épocas del Noachiano tardío-Hesperiano temprano. [ 4 ]

Los análogos en la Tierra muestran pendientes de la cara de la playa de 4°–26° bajo condiciones dominadas por las olas, que coinciden con los ángulos de inclinación marcianos y refuerzan la interpretación de un ambiente de deposición costera en el Marte primitivo. [ 5 ]

Estos hallazgos se complementan con observaciones orbitales de más de 15 000 montículos ricos en arcilla en la cercana Chryse Planitia —restos de antiguas tierras altas erosionadas por el agua hace casi 4 mil millones de años— que conservan afloramientos estratificados con filosilicatos que registran una alteración acuosa prolongada y el retroceso de la zona costera. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]

En conjunto, la estratigrafía, la sedimentología y la cronología de estos depósitos costeros constituyen la evidencia cuantitativa más sólida hasta la fecha sobre la existencia de playas marcianas dinámicas influenciadas por las olas y un océano norte de larga duración. Dichos entornos podrían haber sido hábitats ideales para la vida microbiana primitiva, lo que los convierte en objetivos prioritarios para futuras exploraciones astrobiológicas. [ 8 ] [ 9 ]

vetas de pendiente

Cuando se produce cerca de la cima de una duna, la arena oscura puede deslizarse ladera abajo dejando vetas oscuras en la superficie, vetas que al principio podrían parecer árboles parados frente a las regiones más claras.

La cámara HiRISE del Orbitador de Reconocimiento de Marte ha descubierto un nuevo fenómeno conocido como vetas de pendiente . Estas formaciones aparecen en las paredes de los cráteres y otras pendientes, y son delgadas y alcanzan cientos de metros de longitud. Se ha observado que las vetas crecen lentamente a lo largo de un año aproximadamente, comenzando siempre en un punto de origen. Las vetas recién formadas son de color oscuro, pero se desvanecen con el tiempo hasta volverse blancas. Se desconoce la causa, pero las teorías van desde avalanchas de polvo seco (la teoría más aceptada) hasta filtraciones de salmuera. [ 10 ]

A continuación se muestran ejemplos de vetas oscuras en laderas de diversas partes de Marte. Haga clic en la imagen para verla con mayor detalle.

Líneas de pendiente recurrentes

Las líneas recurrentes en las pendientes son pequeñas vetas oscuras que se alargan en las estaciones cálidas. Pueden ser evidencia de agua líquida. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ]

Huellas de remolinos de polvo

Muchas zonas de Marte experimentan el paso de gigantescos remolinos de polvo . Una fina capa de polvo brillante cubre la mayor parte de la superficie marciana. Cuando un remolino de polvo pasa, arrastra esta capa y deja al descubierto la superficie oscura subyacente. Estos remolinos se han observado tanto desde tierra como desde la órbita. Incluso han limpiado el polvo de los paneles solares de los rovers Spirit y Opportunity en Marte, prolongando considerablemente su vida útil. [ 15 ] Los rovers gemelos fueron diseñados para durar 3 meses; sin embargo, Spirit duró 6 años y 77 días, mientras que Opportunity continuó operando durante 14 años y 136 días. Se ha demostrado que el patrón de las huellas cambia cada pocos meses. [ 16 ]

Capas

En muchos lugares de Marte se observan rocas dispuestas en capas. Las rocas pueden formar capas de diversas maneras. Los volcanes, el viento o el agua pueden producir capas. [ 17 ] En la Tierra, gran parte de la estratificación de las rocas se debe a los sedimentos depositados en el fondo de los lagos. Un análisis detallado de la estratificación, con numerosos ejemplos marcianos, se puede encontrar en Geología Sedimentaria de Marte. [ 18 ] Las capas pueden endurecerse por la acción del agua subterránea. El agua subterránea marciana probablemente se desplazó cientos de kilómetros y, en el proceso, disolvió muchos minerales de la roca que atravesó. Cuando el agua subterránea aflora en zonas bajas con sedimentos, se evapora en la tenue atmósfera y deja tras de sí minerales como depósitos o agentes cementantes. Por consiguiente, las capas de polvo no pudieron erosionarse fácilmente, ya que estaban cementadas entre sí.

Capas en el casquete polar

dunas de arena

Muchas zonas de Marte tienen dunas de arena . Un erg (o mar de arena), formado por campos de dunas eólicas denominados Campo de Dunas Circumpolares [ 19 ] , rodea la mayor parte del casquete polar norte. [ 20 ] Las dunas están cubiertas por una escarcha estacional de dióxido de carbono que se forma a principios de otoño y permanece hasta finales de primavera. [ 20 ] Muchas dunas marcianas se parecen mucho a las terrestres, pero las imágenes obtenidas por el Experimento Científico de Imágenes de Alta Resolución del Orbitador de Reconocimiento de Marte han demostrado que las dunas marcianas en la región polar norte están sujetas a modificación mediante flujo de grano provocado por la sublimación estacional de CO₂ , un proceso que no se observa en la Tierra. [ 21 ] Muchas dunas son negras porque se derivan de la roca volcánica oscura basalto. Los mares de arena extraterrestres como los que se encuentran en Marte se denominan "undae", del latín para olas.

Barrancos

Los barrancos marcianos son pequeñas redes incisas de canales estrechos y sus depósitos de sedimentos asociados ladera abajo , que se encuentran en el planeta Marte . Reciben su nombre por su parecido con los barrancos terrestres . Descubiertos por primera vez en imágenes del Mars Global Surveyor , se presentan en pendientes pronunciadas, especialmente en las paredes de los cráteres. Por lo general, cada barranco tiene una alcoba dendrítica en su cabecera, un delantal en forma de abanico en su base y un único canal inciso que une ambos, lo que le da al barranco una forma de reloj de arena. [ 22 ] Se cree que son relativamente jóvenes porque tienen pocos cráteres, o ninguno.

Basándose en su forma, aspecto, posición y ubicación, así como en su aparente interacción con formaciones que se cree que son ricas en hielo de agua, muchos investigadores creían que los procesos que esculpen los barrancos involucran agua líquida. Sin embargo, este sigue siendo un tema de investigación activa.

Barrancos en las dunas

Se encuentran barrancos en algunas dunas. Estos son algo diferentes de los barrancos en otros lugares, como las paredes de los cráteres. Los barrancos en las dunas parecen mantener el mismo ancho a lo largo de una gran distancia y a menudo terminan en un hoyo, en lugar de una plataforma. Suelen tener solo unos pocos metros de ancho con taludes elevados a lo largo de los lados. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Muchos de estos barrancos se encuentran en las dunas de Russell (cráter marciano) . En invierno, el hielo seco se acumula en las dunas y luego, en primavera, aparecen manchas oscuras y vetas de tonos oscuros crecen ladera abajo. Después de que el hielo seco desaparece, se hacen visibles nuevos canales. Estos barrancos pueden ser causados ​​por bloques de hielo seco que se mueven por la pendiente pronunciada o tal vez por el hielo seco que inicia el movimiento de la arena. [ 25 ] En la delgada atmósfera de Marte, el hielo seco expulsará dióxido de carbono con vigor. [ 26 ] [ 23 ]

Formación de fosas de medusa

La Formación Medusae Fossae es un depósito blando y fácilmente erosionable que se extiende a lo largo de casi 1000  km por el ecuador de Marte . A veces, la formación aparece como una superficie lisa y ligeramente ondulada; sin embargo, en algunos lugares está esculpida por el viento formando crestas y surcos. [ 27 ] Las imágenes de radar han sugerido que la región podría contener roca extremadamente porosa (por ejemplo, ceniza volcánica) o capas profundas de depósitos de hielo similares a glaciares, con una cantidad similar a la almacenada en el casquete polar sur de Marte. [ 28 ] [ 29 ]

La parte inferior (miembro) de la Formación Medusae Fossae contiene numerosos patrones y formas que se cree que son restos de arroyos. Se piensa que estos arroyos formaron valles que se rellenaron y se volvieron resistentes a la erosión por cementación de minerales o por la acumulación de una capa de cobertura gruesa. Estos lechos de arroyos invertidos a veces se denominan crestas sinuosas o elevaciones curvilíneas. Pueden tener alrededor de un kilómetro de longitud. Su altura varía desde un metro hasta más de 10 metros, mientras que el ancho de los más estrechos es inferior a 10 metros. [ 30 ]

El viento ha erosionado la superficie de la formación en una serie de crestas lineales llamadas yardangs. Estas crestas generalmente apuntan en la dirección de los vientos predominantes que las esculpieron y demuestran el poder erosivo de los vientos marcianos. La naturaleza fácilmente erosionable de la Formación Medusae Fossae sugiere que está compuesta de partículas débilmente cementadas y que probablemente se formó por la deposición de polvo arrastrado por el viento o ceniza volcánica . Se observan capas en partes de la formación. Se ha observado una capa de roca resistente en la parte superior de los yardangs en fotos de Viking, [ 31 ] Mars Global Surveyor, [ 32 ] y HiRISE. [ 33 ] Se observan muy pocos cráteres de impacto en toda el área, por lo que la superficie es relativamente joven. [ 34 ]

Yardangs

Los yardangs son comunes en algunas regiones de Marte, especialmente en la Formación Medusae Fossae del cuadrángulo Amazonis y cerca del ecuador. [ 35 ] Se forman por la acción del viento sobre partículas del tamaño de arena; por lo tanto, a menudo apuntan en la dirección en que soplaban los vientos cuando se formaron. [ 36 ] Debido a que presentan muy pocos cráteres de impacto, se cree que son relativamente jóvenes. [ 34 ] [ 37 ]

Terreno accidentado

El terreno escarpado es un tipo de accidente geográfico común en ciertas áreas de Marte, descubierto en imágenes de Mariner 9. Se encuentra entre dos superficies distintas. La superficie de Marte se divide en dos partes: llanuras bajas, jóvenes y sin cráteres que cubren la mayor parte del hemisferio norte, y áreas elevadas, antiguas y densamente craterizadas que cubren el hemisferio sur y una pequeña parte del hemisferio norte. Entre estas dos zonas se encuentra el terreno escarpado, que presenta una compleja mezcla de acantilados, mesetas , cerros y cañones de paredes rectas y sinuosas . El terreno escarpado presenta llanuras lisas y planas junto con escarpes pronunciados. Los escarpes o acantilados suelen tener entre 1 y 2  km de altura. Los canales de la zona tienen fondos anchos y planos y paredes empinadas. [ 38 ] El terreno escarpado es más común en el norte de Arabia , entre las latitudes 30°N y 50°N y las longitudes 270°O y 360°O. [ 39 ] Partes del terreno desgastado se llaman Deuteronilus Mensae y Protonilus Mensae .

En terrenos escarpados, el paisaje parece transitar de valles estrechos y rectos a mesetas aisladas. La mayoría de las mesetas están rodeadas de formaciones que han recibido diversos nombres (delantales circummesa, delantales de detritos, glaciares rocosos y delantales de detritos lobulados ). [ 40 ] Al principio parecían asemejarse a los glaciares rocosos de la Tierra, pero los científicos no estaban seguros. Finalmente, estudios de radar realizados con el Orbitador de Reconocimiento de Marte descubrieron su verdadera naturaleza y demostraron que contienen hielo de agua pura cubierto por una fina capa de rocas que aislaba el hielo. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ]

Además de los glaciares cubiertos de roca alrededor de las mesetas, la región cuenta con numerosos valles de paredes escarpadas con lineaciones —crestas y surcos— en sus fondos. El material que compone estos fondos de valle se denomina relleno de valle lineado. En algunas de las mejores imágenes tomadas por las sondas Viking , parte del relleno de valle parecía asemejarse a los glaciares alpinos terrestres. Dada esta similitud, algunos científicos supusieron que las lineaciones en estos fondos de valle podrían haberse formado por el flujo de hielo dentro (y quizás a través) de estos cañones y valles. Hoy en día, existe un consenso general de que el flujo glaciar fue la causa de las lineaciones.

glaciares

Se cree que los glaciares , definidos vagamente como parches de hielo que fluyen actualmente o recientemente, están presentes en áreas extensas pero restringidas de la superficie marciana moderna, y se infiere que estuvieron más ampliamente distribuidos en ocasiones en el pasado. [ 47 ] [ 48 ]

El análisis de los datos del radar SHARAD llevó a los investigadores a concluir que los glaciares marcianos son 80% hielo puro. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ] [ 52 ]

Glaciar marciano descendiendo por un valle, tal como lo captaron las imágenes de HiRISE dentro del programa HiWish.

|

Relleno de cráteres concéntricos

Concentric crater fill, like lobate debris aprons and lineated valley fill, is believed to be ice-rich.[53] Based on accurate topography measures of height at different points in these craters and calculations of how deep the craters should be based on their diameters, it is thought that the craters are 80% filled with mostly ice.[54][55][56][57] That is, they hold hundreds of meters of material that probably consists of ice with a few tens of meters of surface debris.[58][59] The ice accumulated in the crater from snowfall in previous climates.[60][61][62] Recent modeling suggests that concentric crater fill develops over many cycles in which snow is deposited, then moves into the crater. Once inside the crater, shade and dust preserve the snow. The snow changes to ice. The many concentric lines are created by the many cycles of snow accumulation. Generally snow accumulates whenever the axial tilt reaches 35 degrees.[63]

Mesas

Mesas are common on the Earth and on Mars. They represent landscapes that covered a wide area. They are what is left after erosion has taken away most of the material. They have a "cap rock" on the top which keeps erosion from working on underlying layers. Monument Valley is a location on the Earth that people often visit to see these features.

Chaos terrain

Chaos terrain is believed to be associated with the release of huge amounts of water. The chaotic features may have collapsed when water came out of the surface. Martian outflow channels commonly begin with a Chaos region. A chaotic region can be recognized by a tangle of mesas, buttes, and hills, all chopped through with valleys which in places look almost patterned. Some parts of this chaotic area have not collapsed completely—they are still formed into large mesas, so they may still contain water ice.[64] Chaotic terrain occurs in numerous locations on Mars, and always gives the strong impression that something abruptly disturbed the ground. Chaos regions formed long ago. By counting craters (more craters in any given area means an older surface) and by studying the valleys' relations with other geological features, scientists have concluded the channels formed 2.0 to 3.8 billion years ago.[65]

Remnants of a 50–100 meter thick mantling, called the upper plains unit, has been discovered in the mid-latitudes of Mars. First investigated in the Deuteronilus Mensae region, but it occurs in other places as well. The remnants consist of sets of dipping layers in craters and along mesas.[67] Sets of dipping layers may be of various sizes and shapes—some look like Aztec pyramids from Central America. Another idea for their origin was presented at 55th LPSC (2024) by an international team of researchers. They suggest that the layers are from past ice sheets.[68]

This unit also degrades into brain terrain. Brain terrain is a region of maze-like ridges 3–5 meters high. Some ridges may consist of an ice core, so they may be sources of water for future colonists.

Some regions of the upper plains unit display large fractures and troughs with raised rims; such regions are called ribbed upper plains. Fractures are believed to have started with small cracks from stresses. Stress is suggested to initiate the fracture process since ribbed upper plains are common when debris aprons come together or near the edge of debris aprons—such sites would generate compressional stresses. Cracks exposed more surfaces, and consequently more ice in the material sublimates into the planet's thin atmosphere. Eventually, small cracks become large canyons or troughs. Small cracks often contain small pits and chains of pits; these are thought to be from sublimation of ice in the ground.[69][70] Large areas of the Martian surface are loaded with ice that is protected by a meters thick layer of dust and other material. However, if cracks appear, a fresh surface will expose ice to the thin atmosphere.[71][72] In a short time, the ice will disappear into the cold, thin atmosphere in a process called sublimation. Dry ice behaves in a similar fashion on the Earth. On Mars sublimation has been observed when the Phoenix lander uncovered chunks of ice that disappeared in a few days.[73][74] In addition, HiRISE has seen fresh craters with ice at the bottom. After a time, HiRISE saw the ice deposit disappear.[75]

The upper plains unit is thought to have fallen from the sky. It drapes various surfaces, as if it fell evenly. As is the case for other mantle deposits, the upper plains unit has layers, is fine-grained, and is ice-rich. It is widespread; it does not seem to have a point source. The surface appearance of some regions of Mars is due to how this unit has degraded. It is a major cause of the surface appearance of lobate debris aprons.[70] The layering of the upper plains mantling unit and other mantling units are believed to be caused by major changes in the planet's climate. Models predict that the obliquity or tilt of the rotational axis has varied from its present 25 degrees to maybe over 80 degrees over geological time. Periods of high tilt will cause the ice in the polar caps to be redistributed and change the amount of dust in the atmosphere.[76][77][78]

Latitude dependent mantle

Much of the Martian surface is covered with a thick ice-rich, mantle layer that has fallen from the sky a number of times in the past.[79][80][81] In some places a number of layers are visible in the mantle.

It fell as snow and ice-coated dust. There is good evidence that this mantle is ice-rich. The shapes of the polygons common on many surfaces suggest ice-rich soil. High levels of hydrogen (probably from water) have been found with Mars Odyssey.[82][83][84][85][86] Thermal measurements from orbit suggest ice.[87][88] The Phoenix Lander found water ice directly since it landed in a field of polygons and its landing rockets exposed a pure ice surface.[73][89] Theory had predicted that ice would be found under a few cm of soil. This mantle layer is called "latitude dependent mantle" because its occurrence is related to the latitude. It is this mantle that cracks and then forms polygonal ground. This cracking of ice-rich ground is predicted based on physical processes.[90][91][92][93][94][95][96]

Polygonal, patterned ground is quite common in some regions of Mars.[97][98][99][100][95][101][102] It is commonly believed to be caused by the sublimation of ice from the ground. Sublimation is the direct change of solid ice to a gas. This is similar to what happens to dry ice on the Earth. Places on Mars that display polygonal ground may indicate where future colonists can find water ice. Patterned ground forms in a mantle layer, called latitude dependent mantle, that fell from the sky when the climate was different.[79][80][103][104]

Scalloped topography

Scalloped topography is common in the mid-latitudes of Mars, between 45° and 60° north and south. It is particularly prominent in the region of Utopia Planitia[105][106] in the northern hemisphere and in the region of Peneus and Amphitrites Patera[107][108] in the southern hemisphere. Such topography consists of shallow, rimless depressions with scalloped edges, commonly referred to as "scalloped depressions" or simply "scallops". Scalloped depressions can be isolated or clustered and sometimes seem to coalesce. A typical scalloped depression displays a gentle equator-facing slope and a steeper pole-facing scarp. This topographic asymmetry is probably due to differences in insolation. Scalloped depressions are believed to form from the removal of subsurface material, possibly interstitial ice, by sublimation. This process may still be happening at present.[109]

On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars.[110] The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.[111][112] The volume of water ice in the region were based on measurements from the ground-penetrating radar instrument on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, called SHARAD. From the data obtained from SHARAD, “dielectric permittivity”, or the dielectric constant was determined. The dielectric constant value was consistent with a large concentration of water ice.[113][114][115]

Ancient rivers?

There is great deal of evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars. Pictures from orbit show winding valleys, branched valleys, and even meanders with oxbow lakes.[116] Some are visible in the pictures below.

Streamlined shapes

Streamlined shapes represent more evidence of past flowing water on Mars. Water shaped features into streamlined shapes. These shapes were probably made by great floods. Parts of Mars look like the ground has collapsed and allowed water to quickly erupt. The more pointed part of each shape points in the direction the water moved.

Deltas

Deltas form when running water enters a large body of water and slows. When moving water slows, it drops its load the sediment. Finding deltas is evidence of large bodies of water like lakes.

Pedestal crater

Pedestal craters are believed to be caused by a crater's ejecta protecting the material beneath it from eroding. The underlying material is probably ice-rich; hence these craters indicate where and how much ice was present in the ground.[117][118][119][120]

Halo Craters

Halo craters have been eroded so much that just a ring of boulders exist.

Boulders

Brain terrain

Brain terrain is a feature of the Martian surface, consisting of complex ridges found on lobate debris aprons, lineated valley fill and concentric crater fill. It is so named because it suggests the ridges on the surface of the human brain. Wide ridges are called closed-cell brain terrain, and the less common narrow ridges are called open-cell brain terrain.[122] It is thought that the wide closed-cell terrain contains a core of ice, and when the ice disappears the center of the wide ridge collapses to produce the narrow ridges of the open-cell brain terrain.

Ring mold craters

Ring mold craters are believed to be formed from asteroid impacts into ground that has an underlying layer of ice. The impact produces a rebound of the ice layer to form a "ring-mold" shape. These features may be markers where ground ice is especially thick. Future colonists may sent robots to these types of formations to harves ice.

Rootless cones

Rootless cones are caused by explosions of lava with ground ice under the flow. The ice melts and turns into a vapor that expands in an explosion that produces a cone or ring. Features like these are found in Iceland, when lavas cover water-saturated substrates.[123][124][125]

Mud volcanoes

Some features look like volcanoes. Some of them may be mud volcanoes where pressurized mud is forced upward forming cones. These features may be places to look for life as they bring to the surface possible life that has been protected from radiation.

Lava flows

Mass has extensive fields of lava. Most of the lava was of the basalt variety. It was very liquid and could flow long distances. It often flowed about obstacles like mounds.

Linear Ridge Networks

Linear ridge networks are found in various places on Mars in and around craters.[126] Ridges often appear as mostly straight segments that intersect in a lattice-like manner. They are hundreds of meters long, tens of meters high, and several meters wide. It is thought that impacts created fractures in the surface, these fractures later acted as channels for fluids. Fluids cemented the structures. With the passage of time, surrounding material was eroded away, thereby leaving hard ridges behind. Since the ridges occur in locations with clay, these formations could serve as a marker for clay which requires water for its formation.[127][128][129]

Fractures forming blocks

In places large fractures break up surfaces. Sometimes straight edges are formed and large cubes are created by the fractures.

Volcanoes under ice

There is evidence that volcanoes sometimes erupt under ice, as they do on Earth at times. What seems to happen it that much ice melts, the water goes away, and then the surface cracks and collapses. These exhibit concentric fractures and large pieces of ground that seemed to have been pulled apart. Sites like this may have recently had held liquid water, hence they may be fruitful places to search for evidence of life.[130][131]

Defrosting

In the spring, various shapes appear because frost is disappearing from the surface, exposing the underling dark soil. Also, in some places dust is blown out of in geyser-like eruptions that are sometimes called "spiders." If a wind is blowing, the material creates a long, dark streak or fan.[132]

During the winter, much frost accumulates. It freezes out directly onto the surface of the permanent polar cap, which is made of water ice covered with layers of dust and sand. The deposit begins as a layer of dusty CO2 frost. Over the winter, it recrystallizes and becomes denser. The dust and sand particles caught in the frost slowly sink. By the time temperatures rise in the spring, the frost layer has become a slab of semi-transparent ice about 3 feet thick, lying on a substrate of dark sand and dust. This dark material absorbs light and causes the ice to sublimate (turn directly into a gas). Eventually much gas accumulates and becomes pressurized. When it finds a weak spot, the gas escapes and blows out the dust. Speeds can reach 100 miles per hour.[133] Dark channels can sometimes be seen; they are called "spiders."[134][135][136] The surface appears covered with dark spots when this process is occurring.[133][137]

Many ideas have been advanced to explain these features.[138][139][140][141][142][143][144] These features can be seen in some of the pictures below.

See also

References

  1. Cardenas, Benjamin (2025-02-25). "Mars once featured "vacation-style" beaches, study suggests". Axios.
  2. NASA (2024-11-07). "Zhurong radar uncovers Martian "beach" deposits". Reuters.
  3. "Beauty of Beaches on Mars Once Rivaled Those on Earth". Time. 2025-02-25.
  4. Wu, Bo (2024-11-07). "Chinese rover helps find evidence of ancient Martian shoreline". Reuters.
  5. "Beauty of Beaches on Mars Once Rivaled Those on Earth". Time. 2025-02-25.
  6. Ashworth, James (2025-01-20). "Mysterious Martian mounds formed by ancient water". Natural History Museum.
  7. "Mystery mounds reveal the history of water on Mars". Phys.org. 2025-01-20.
  8. Cardenas, Benjamin (2025-02-25). "Mars once featured "vacation-style" beaches, study suggests". Axios.
  9. Wu, Bo (2024-11-07). "Chinese rover helps find evidence of ancient Martian shoreline". Reuters.
  10. "Newly-Formed Slope Streaks". NASA. Archived from the original on 2007-03-02. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
  11. McEwen, A.; et al. (2014). "Recurring slope lineae in equatorial regions of Mars". Nature Geoscience. 7 (1): 53–58. Bibcode:2014NatGe...7...53M. doi:10.1038/ngeo2014.
  12. Ojha, L.; et al. (2014). "HiRISE observations of Recurring Slope Lineae (RSL) during southern summer on Mars". Icarus. 231: 365–376. Bibcode:2014Icar..231..365O. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.12.021.
  13. McEwen, A.; et al. (2011). "Seasonal Flows on Warm Martian Slopes". Science. 333 (6043): 740–743. Bibcode:2011Sci...333..740M. doi:10.1126/science.1204816. PMID 21817049. S2CID 10460581.
  14. "recurring slope lineae | Red Planet Report". redplanet.asu.edu.
  15. "Mars Exploration Rover Mission: Press Release Images: Spirit". Marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
  16. "Ken Edgett". NASA's Mars Exploration Program. Archived from the original on October 28, 2011. Retrieved January 19, 2012.
  17. "HiRISE | High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment". Hirise.lpl.arizona.edu?psp_008437_1750. Retrieved 2012-08-04.
  18. Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.). 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. SEPM.
  19. Massé, M.; Bourgeois, O; Le Mouélic, S.; Verpoorter, C.; Le Deit, L. (March 2011). "Distribution and Origin of Polar Gypsum on Mars"(PDF). 42nd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Lunar and Planetary Institute. Retrieved 2015-02-20.
  20. 12Schatz, Volker; H. Tsoar; K. S. Edgett; E. J. R. Parteli; H. J. Herrmann (2006). "Evidence for indurated sand dunes in the Martian north polar region". Journal of Geophysical Research. 111 (E04006): E04006. Bibcode:2006JGRE..111.4006S. doi:10.1029/2005JE002514.
  21. Hansen, C. J.; Bourke, M.; Bridges, N. T.; Byrne, S.; Colon, C.; Diniega, S.; Dundas, C.; Herkenhoff, K.; McEwen, A.; Mellon, M.; Portyankina, G.; Thomas, N. (4 February 2011). "Seasonal Erosion and Restoration of Mars' Northern Polar Dunes"(PDF). Science. 331 (6017): 575–578. Bibcode:2011Sci...331..575H. doi:10.1126/science.1197636. PMID 21292976. S2CID 33738104. Retrieved 2015-02-20.
  22. Malin, M.; Edgett, K. (2000). "Evidence for recent groundwater seepage and surface runoff on Mars". Science. 288 (5475): 2330–2335. Bibcode:2000Sci...288.2330M. doi:10.1126/science.288.5475.2330. PMID 10875910.
  23. 12"Linear Gullies on Mars Caused by Sliding Dry-Ice". 12 June 2013.
  24. Dundas, C., et al. 2012. Seasonal activity and morphological changes in martian gullies. Icarus: 220, 124–143.
  25. McEwen, A., et al. 2017. Mars The Pristine Beauty of the Red Planet. University of Arizona Press. Tucson.
  26. "Marks on Martian Dunes May Reveal Tracks of Dry Ice Sleds - NASA".
  27. Fraser Cain (2005-03-29). "Medusa Fossae Region on Mars". Universetoday.com. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
  28. Shiga, David (1 November 2007). "Vast amount of water ice may lie on Martian equator". New Scientist Space. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  29. Watters, T. R.; Campbell, B.; Carter, L.; Leuschen, C. J.; Plaut, J. J.; Picardi, G.; Orosei, R.; Safaeinili, A.; et al. (2007). "Radar Sounding of the Medusae Fossae Formation Mars: Equatorial Ice or Dry, Low-Density Deposits?". Science. 318 (5853): 1125–8. Bibcode:2007Sci...318.1125W. doi:10.1126/science.1148112. PMID 17975034. S2CID 25050428.
  30. Zimbelman, James R.; Griffin, Lora J. (2010). "HiRISE images of yardangs and sinuous ridges in the lower member of the Medusae Fossae Formation, Mars". Icarus. 205 (1): 198–210. Bibcode:2010Icar..205..198Z. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.04.003.
  31. Scott, David H.; Tanaka, Kenneth L. (1982). "Ignimbrites of Amazonis Planitia Region of Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research. 87 (B2): 1179–1190. Bibcode:1982JGR....87.1179S. doi:10.1029/JB087iB02p01179.
  32. Malin, MC; Carr, MH; Danielson, GE; Davies, ME; Hartmann, WK; Ingersoll, AP; James, PB; Masursky, H; et al. (March 1998). "Early views of the martian surface from the Mars Orbiter Camera of Mars Global Surveyor". Science. 279 (5357): 1681–5. Bibcode:1998Sci...279.1681M. doi:10.1126/science.279.5357.1681. PMID 9497280.
  33. Mandt, Kathleen E.; De Silva, Shanaka L.; Zimbelman, James R.; Crown, David A. (2008). "The origin of the Medusae Fossae Formation, Mars: Insights from a synoptic approach". Journal of Geophysical Research. 113 (E12): 12011. Bibcode:2008JGRE..11312011M. doi:10.1029/2008JE003076. hdl:10088/7052.
  34. 12"Medusae Fossae Formation | Mars Odyssey Mission THEMIS". themis.asu.edu.
  35. Ward, A. W. (December 1, 1979). "Yardangs on Mars: evidence of recent wind erosion". Journal of Geophysical Research. 84: 8147–8166. Bibcode:1979JGR....84.8147W. doi:10.1029/JB084iB14p08147 via NASA ADS.
  36. "'Yardangs' on Mars". www.esa.int.
  37. "Wind Carved Rock". HiRise. University of Arizona. 25 January 2026. Retrieved 16 February 2026.
  38. Strom, R.G.; Croft, S.K.; Barlow, N.G. (1992). "The Martian Impact Cratering Record". In Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S. (eds.). Mars. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. pp. 384–385. ISBN 978-0-8165-1257-7.
  39. "Catalog Page for PIA01502". Photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
  40. "Observations of aprons in martian fretted terrain"(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 2003-04-21.
  41. Head, J.; Neukum, G.; Jaumann, R.; Hiesinger, H.; Hauber, E.; Carr, M.; Masson, P.; Foing, B.; Hoffmann, H.; Kreslavsky, M.; Werner, S.; Milkovich, S.; Van Gasselt, S.; Co-Investigator Team, The Hrsc; et al. (2005). "Tropical to mid-latitude snow and ice accumulation, flow and glaciation on Mars". Nature. 434 (7031): 346–50. Bibcode:2005Natur.434..346H. doi:10.1038/nature03359. PMID 15772652. S2CID 4363630.
  42. Plaut, J.; et al. (2008). "Radar Evidence for Ice in Lobate Debris Aprons in the Mid-Northern Latitudes of Mars". Lunar and Planetary Science. XXXIX: 2290.
  43. Holt, J.; et al. (2008). "Radar Sounding Evidence for Ice within Lobate Debris Aprons near Hellas Basin, Mid-Southern Latitudes of Mars". Lunar and Planetary Science. XXXIX (1391): 2441. Bibcode:2008LPI....39.2441H.
  44. Plaut Jeffrey J.; Safaeinili, Ali; Holt, John W.; Phillips, Roger J.; Head, James W.; Seu, Roberto; Putzig, Nathaniel E.; Frigeri, Alessandro; et al. (28 January 2009). "Radar evidence for ice in lobate debris aprons in the mid-northern latitudes of Mars"(PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 36 (2): L02203. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..36.2203P. doi:10.1029/2008GL036379. S2CID 17530607. Archived from the original(PDF) on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2025.
  45. "Mars' climate in flux: Mid-latitude glaciers | Mars Today – Your Daily Source of Mars News". Mars Today. Retrieved 2012-01-16.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  46. "Glaciers Reveal Martian Climate Has Been Recently Active". Providence, RI: Brown University. April 23, 2008. Retrieved 2015-02-20.
  47. "The Surface of Mars" Series: Cambridge Planetary Science (No. 6) ISBN 978-0-511-26688-1 Michael H. Carr, United States Geological Survey, Menlo Park
  48. Hugh H. Kieffer (1992). Mars. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-1257-7. Retrieved March 7, 2011.
  49. Yuval Steinberg et al, "Physical properties of subsurface water ice deposits in Mars's Mid-Latitudes from the shallow radar.", Icarus (2025)
  50. https://www.space.com/astronomy/mars/good-news-for-mars-settlers-red-planet-glaciers-are-mostly-pure-water-ice-study-suggests
  51. "Mars Glaciers: Pure Water Ice Discovered on the Red Planet! - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Retrieved 2026-05-15.
  52. Steinberg, Y. et al. 2025. Physical properties of subsurface water ice deposits in Mars’s Mid-Latitudes from the shallow radar. Icarus. vol. 441 116716
  53. Levy, J.; et al. (2009). "Concentric crater fill in Utopia Planitia: History and interaction between glacial "brain terrain" and periglacial processes". Icarus. 202 (2): 462–476. Bibcode:2009Icar..202..462L. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.02.018.
  54. Levy, J.; Head, J.; Marchant, D. (2010). "Concentric Crater fill in the northern mid-latitudes of Mars: Formation process and relationships to similar landforms of glacial origin". Icarus. 209 (2): 390–404. Bibcode:2010Icar..209..390L. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.03.036.
  55. Levy, J.; Head, J.; Dickson, J.; Fassett, C.; Morgan, G.; Schon, S. (2010). "Identification of gully debris flow deposits in Protonilus Mensae, Mars: Characterization of a water-bearing, energetic gully-forming process". Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 294 (3–4): 368–377. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.294..368L. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.08.002.
  56. "HiRISE | Ice Deposition and Loss in an Impact Crater in Utopia Basin (ESP_032569_2225)". hirise.lpl.arizona.edu.
  57. Garvin, J., S. Sakimoto, J. Frawley. 2003. Craters on Mars: Geometric properties from gridded MOLA topography. In: Sixth International Conference on Mars. July 20–25, 2003, Pasadena, California. Abstract 3277.
  58. Garvin, J. et al. 2002. Global geometric properties of martian impact craters. Lunar Planet. Sci: 33. Abstract # 1255.
  59. "Catalog Page for PIA09662". photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov.
  60. Kreslavsky, M. and J. Head. 2006. Modification of impact craters in the northern planes of Mars: Implications for the Amazonian climate history. Meteorit. Planet. Sci.: 41. 1633–1646
  61. Madeleine, J. et al. 2007. Exploring the northern mid-latitude glaciation with a general circulation model. In: Seventh International Conference on Mars. Abstract 3096.
  62. "HiRISE | Dissected Mantled Terrain (PSP_002917_2175)". hirise.lpl.arizona.edu.
  63. Fastook, J., J. Head. 2014. Concentric crater fill: Rates of glacial accumulation, infilling and deglaciation in the Amazonian and Noachian of Mars. 45th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (2014) 1227.pdf
  64. "Unraveling the Chaos of Aram | Mars Odyssey Mission THEMIS". Themis.asu.edu. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
  65. "Feature Image: Volcanism and Collapse in Hydraotes". 2008-11-26. Archived from the original on January 20, 2010. Retrieved January 19, 2012.
  66. Blanc, E., et al. 2024. ORIGIN OF WIDESPREAD LAYERED DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH MARTIAN DEBRIS COVERED GLACIERS. 55th LPSC (2024). 1466.pdf
  67. Carr, M. 2001.
  68. Blanc, E., et al. 2024. ORIGIN OF WIDESPREAD LAYERED DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH MARTIAN DEBRIS COVERED GLACIERS. 55th LPSC (2024). 1466.pdf
  69. Morgenstern, A., et al. 2007
  70. 12Baker, D.; Head, J. (2015). "Extensive Middle Amazonian mantling of debris aprons and plains in Deuteronilus Mensae, Mars: Implication for the record of mid-latitude glaciation". Icarus. 260: 269–288. Bibcode:2015Icar..260..269B. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.06.036.
  71. Mangold, N (2003). "Geomorphic analysis of lobate debris aprons on Mars at Mars Orbiter Camera scale: Evidence for ice sublimation initiated by fractures". J. Geophys. Res. 108 (E4): 8021. Bibcode:2003JGRE..108.8021M. doi:10.1029/2002je001885.
  72. Levy, J. et al. 2009. Concentric
  73. 12Bright Chunks at Phoenix Lander's Mars Site Must Have Been IceArchived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine – Official NASA press release (19.06.2008)
  74. 12"NASA.gov". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-04-08.
  75. Byrne, S.; et al. (2009). "Distribution of Mid-Latitude Ground Ice on Mars from New Impact Craters". Science. 325 (5948): 1674–1676. Bibcode:2009Sci...325.1674B. doi:10.1126/science.1175307. PMID 19779195. S2CID 10657508.
  76. Head, J. et al. 2003.
  77. Madeleine, et al. 2014.
  78. Schon; et al. (2009). "A recent ice age on Mars: Evidence for climate oscillations from regional layering in mid-latitude mantling deposits". Geophys. Res. Lett. 36 (15): L15202. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..3615202S. doi:10.1029/2009GL038554.
  79. 12Hecht, M (2002). "Metastability of water on Mars". Icarus. 156 (2): 373–386. Bibcode:2002Icar..156..373H. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6794.
  80. 12Mustard, J.; et al. (2001). "Evidence for recent climate change on Mars from the identification of youthful near-surface ground ice". Nature. 412 (6845): 411–414. Bibcode:2001Natur.412..411M. doi:10.1038/35086515. PMID 11473309. S2CID 4409161.
  81. Pollack, J.; Colburn, D.; Flaser, F.; Kahn, R.; Carson, C.; Pidek, D. (1979). "Properties and effects of dust suspended in the martian atmosphere". J. Geophys. Res. 84: 2929–2945. Bibcode:1979JGR....84.2929P. doi:10.1029/jb084ib06p02929.
  82. Boynton, W.; et al. (2002). "Distribution of hydrogen in the nearsurface of Mars: Evidence for sub-surface ice deposits". Science. 297 (5578): 81–85. Bibcode:2002Sci...297...81B. doi:10.1126/science.1073722. PMID 12040090. S2CID 16788398.
  83. Kuzmin, R; et al. (2004). "Regions of potential existence of free water (ice) in the near-surface martian ground: Results from the Mars Odyssey High-Energy Neutron Detector (HEND)". Solar System Research. 38 (1): 1–11. Bibcode:2004SoSyR..38....1K. doi:10.1023/b:sols.0000015150.61420.5b. S2CID 122295205.
  84. Mitrofanov, I. et al. 2007a. Burial depth of water ice in Mars permafrost subsurface. In: LPSC 38, Abstract #3108. Houston, TX.
  85. Mitrofanov, I.; et al. (2007b). "Water ice permafrost on Mars: Layering structure and subsurface distribution according to HEND/Odyssey and MOLA/MGS data". Geophys. Res. Lett. 34 (18): 18. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3418102M. doi:10.1029/2007GL030030. S2CID 45615143.
  86. Mangold, N.; et al. (2004). "Spatial relationships between patterned ground and ground ice detected by the neutron spectrometer on Mars"(PDF). J. Geophys. Res. 109 (E8): E8. Bibcode:2004JGRE..109.8001M. doi:10.1029/2004JE002235.
  87. Feldman, W (2002). "Global distribution of neutrons from Mars: Results from Mars Odyssey". Science. 297 (5578): 75–78. Bibcode:2002Sci...297...75F. doi:10.1126/science.1073541. PMID 12040088. S2CID 11829477.
  88. Feldman, W.; et al. (2008). "North to south asymmetries in the water-equivalent hydrogen distribution at high latitudes on Mars". J. Geophys. Res. 113 (E8). Bibcode:2008JGRE..113.8006F. doi:10.1029/2007JE003020. hdl:2027.42/95381.
  89. "Confirmation of Water on Mars". Nasa.gov. 2008-06-20. Archived from the original on 2008-07-01. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
  90. Mutch, T.A.; et al. (1976). "The surface of Mars: The view from the Viking2 lander". Science. 194 (4271): 1277–1283. Bibcode:1976Sci...194.1277M. doi:10.1126/science.194.4271.1277. PMID 17797083. S2CID 38178368.
  91. Mutch, T.; et al. (1977). "The geology of the Viking Lander 2 site". J. Geophys. Res. 82 (28): 4452–4467. Bibcode:1977JGR....82.4452M. doi:10.1029/js082i028p04452.
  92. Levy, J.; et al. (2009). "Thermal contraction crack polygons on Mars: Classification, distribution, and climate implications from HiRISE observations". J. Geophys. Res. 114 (E1): E01007. Bibcode:2009JGRE..114.1007L. doi:10.1029/2008JE003273.
  93. Washburn, A. 1973. Periglacial Processes and Environments. St. Martin's Press, New York, pp. 1–2, 100–147.
  94. Mellon, M (1997). "Small-scale polygonal features on Mars: Seasonal thermal contraction cracks in permafrost". J. Geophys. Res. 102 (E11): 25617–25628. Bibcode:1997JGR...10225617M. doi:10.1029/97je02582.
  95. 12Mangold, N (2005). "High latitude patterned grounds on Mars: Classification, distribution and climatic control". Icarus. 174 (2): 336–359. Bibcode:2005Icar..174..336M. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2004.07.030.
  96. Marchant, D.; Head, J. (2007). "Antarctic dry valleys: Microclimate zonation, variable geomorphic processes, and implications for assessing climate change on Mars". Icarus. 192 (1): 187–222. Bibcode:2007Icar..192..187M. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.06.018.
  97. Refubium – Suche
  98. Kostama, V.-P.; Kreslavsky, Head (2006). "Recent high-latitude icy mantle in the northern plains of Mars: Characteristics and ages of emplacement". Geophys. Res. Lett. 33 (11): L11201. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3311201K. doi:10.1029/2006GL025946. S2CID 17229252.
  99. Malin, M.; Edgett, K. (2001). "Mars Global Surveyor Mars Orbiter Camera: Interplanetary cruise through primary mission". J. Geophys. Res. 106 (E10): 23429–23540. Bibcode:2001JGR...10623429M. doi:10.1029/2000je001455.
  100. Milliken, R.; et al. (2003). "Viscous flow features on the surface of Mars: Observations from high-resolution Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) images". J. Geophys. Res. 108 (E6): E6. Bibcode:2003JGRE..108.5057M. doi:10.1029/2002JE002005.
  101. Kreslavsky, M.; Head, J. (2000). "Kilometer-scale roughness on Mars: Results from MOLA data analysis". J. Geophys. Res. 105 (E11): 26695–26712. Bibcode:2000JGR...10526695K. doi:10.1029/2000je001259.
  102. Seibert, N.; Kargel, J. (2001). "Small-scale martian polygonal terrain: Implications for liquid surface water". Geophys. Res. Lett. 28 (5): 899–902. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28..899S. doi:10.1029/2000gl012093. S2CID 129590052.
  103. Kreslavsky, M.A., Head, J.W., 2002. High-latitude Recent Surface Mantle on Mars: New Results from MOLA and MOC. European Geophysical Society XXVII, Nice.
  104. Head, J.W.; Mustard, J.F.; Kreslavsky, M.A.; Milliken, R.E.; Marchant, D.R. (2003). "Recent ice ages on Mars". Nature. 426 (6968): 797–802. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..797H. doi:10.1038/nature02114. PMID 14685228. S2CID 2355534.
  105. Lefort, A.; Russell, P. S.; Thomas, N.; McEwen, A. S.; Dundas, C. M.; Kirk, R. L. (2009). "Observations of periglacial landforms in Utopia Planitia with the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE)". Journal of Geophysical Research. 114 (E4): E04005. Bibcode:2009JGRE..114.4005L. doi:10.1029/2008JE003264.
  106. Morgenstern, A; Hauber, E; Reiss, D; van Gasselt, S; Grosse, G; Schirrmeister, L (2007). "Deposition and degradation of a volatile-rich layer in Utopia Planitia, and implications for climate history on Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 112 (E6): E06010. Bibcode:2007JGRE..112.6010M. doi:10.1029/2006JE002869.
  107. Lefort, A.; Russell, P.S.; Thomas, N. (2010). "Scalloped terrains in the Peneus and Amphitrites Paterae region of Mars as observed by HiRISE". Icarus. 205 (1): 259. Bibcode:2010Icar..205..259L. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.06.005.
  108. Zanetti, M.; Hiesinger, H.; Reiss, D.; Hauber, E.; Neukum, G. (2009). "Scalloped Depression Development on Malea Planum and the Southern Wall of the Hellas Basin, Mars"(PDF). Lunar and Planetary Science. 40. p. 2178, abstract 2178. Bibcode:2009LPI....40.2178Z.
  109. https://hiroc.lpl.arizona.edu/images/PSP?diafotizo.php?ID=PSP_002296_1215
  110. Mike Wall (November 22, 2016). "Huge Underground Ice Deposit on Mars Is Bigger Than New Mexico". Space.com.
  111. Staff (November 22, 2016). "Scalloped Terrain Led to Finding of Buried Ice on Mars". NASA. Retrieved November 23, 2016.
  112. "Lake of frozen water the size of New Mexico found on Mars – NASA". The Register. November 22, 2016. Retrieved November 23, 2016.
  113. Bramson, A, et al. 2015. Widespread excess ice in Arcadia Planitia, Mars. Geophysical Research Letters: 42, 6566–6574
  114. "Widespread, Thick Water Ice found in Utopia Planitia, Mars". Archived from the original on 2016-11-30. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
  115. Stuurman, C., et al. 2016. SHARAD detection and characterization of subsurface water ice deposits in Utopia Planitia, Mars. Geophysical Research Letters: 43, 9484_9491.
  116. Baker, V. 1982. The Channels of Mars. Univ. of Tex. Press, Austin, TX
  117. http://hirise.lpl.eduPSP_008508_1870
  118. Bleacher, J. and S. Sakimoto. Pedestal Craters, A Tool For Interpreting Geological Histories and Estimating Erosion Rates. LPSC
  119. "Feature Image: Pedestal Craters in Utopia". Archived from the original on 2010-01-18. Retrieved 2010-03-26.
  120. McCauley, J. F. (1973). "Mariner 9 evidence for wind erosion in the equatorial and mid-latitude regions of Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research. 78 (20): 4123–4137. Bibcode:1973JGR....78.4123M. doi:10.1029/JB078i020p04123.
  121. Levy, J. et al. 2008. Origin and arrangement of boulders on the martian northern plains: Assessment of emplacement and modification environments> In 39th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Abstract #1172. League City, TX
  122. Levy, J.; Head, J.; Marchant, D. (2009). "Concentric crater fill in Utopia Planitia: History and interaction between glacial "brain terrain" and periglacial mantle processes". Icarus. 202 (2): 462–476. Bibcode:2009Icar..202..462L. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.02.018.
  123. S. Fagents, A., P. Lanagan, R. Greeley. 2002. Rootless cones on Mars: a consequence of lava-ground ice interaction. Geological Society, Londo. Special Publications: 202, 295–317.
  124. "PSR Discoveries: Rootless cones on Mars". www.psrd.hawaii.edu.
  125. Jaeger, W., L. Keszthelyi, A. McEwen, C. Dundas, P. Russell, and the HiRISE team. 2007. EARLY HiRISE OBSERVATIONS OF RING/MOUND LANDFORMS IN ATHABASCA VALLES, MARS. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII 1955.pdf.
  126. Head, J., J. Mustard. 2006. Breccia dikes and crater-related faults in impact craters on Mars: Erosion and exposure on the floor of a crater 75 km in diameter at the dichotomy boundary, Meteorit. Planet Science: 41, 1675–1690.
  127. Mangold; et al. (2007). "Mineralogy of the Nili Fossae region with OMEGA/Mars Express data: 2. Aqueous alteration of the crust". J. Geophys. Res. 112 (E8): E08S04. Bibcode:2007JGRE..112.8S04M. doi:10.1029/2006JE002835. S2CID 15188454.
  128. Mustard et al., 2007. Mineralogy of the Nili Fossae region with OMEGA/Mars Express data: 1. Ancient impact melt in the Isidis Basin and implications for the transition from the Noachian to Hesperian, J. Geophys. Res., 112.
  129. Mustard; et al. (2009). "Composition, Morphology, and Stratigraphy of Noachian Crust around the Isidis Basin". J. Geophys. Res. 114 (7): E00D12. Bibcode:2009JGRE..114.0D12M. doi:10.1029/2009JE003349.
  130. 12Levy, J., et al. 2017. Candidate volcanic and impact-induced ice depressions on Mars. Icarus: 285, 185–194.
  131. University of Texas at Austin. "A funnel on Mars could be a place to look for life." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 10 November 2016. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/11/161110125408.htm>.
  132. "HiRISE | Spring Fans at Macclesfield (ESP_064469_0945)". www.uahirise.org. Retrieved 2026-05-15.
  133. 12"Gas jets spawn dark 'spiders' and spots on Mars icecap | Mars Odyssey Mission THEMIS". themis.asu.edu.
  134. Benson, M. 2012. Planetfall: New Solar System Visions
  135. "Spiders Invade Mars". Astrobiology Magazine. February 14, 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-02-14.
  136. Kieffer H, Christensen P, Titus T. 2006 Aug 17. CO2 jets formed by sublimation beneath translucent slab ice in Mars' seasonal south polar ice cap. Nature: 442(7104):793-6.
  137. "Thawing 'Dry Ice' Drives Groovy Action on Mars". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).
  138. Kieffer, H. H. (2000). "Annual Punctuated CO2 Slab-ice and Jets on Mars"(PDF). Mars Polar Science 2000. Retrieved 6 September 2009.
  139. Kieffer, Hugh H. (2003). "Behavior of Solid CO"(PDF). Third Mars Polar Science Conference. Retrieved 6 September 2009.
  140. Portyankina, G., ed. (2006). "Simulations of Geyser-Type Eruptions in Cryptic Region of Martian South"(PDF). Fourth Mars Polar Science Conference. Retrieved 11 August 2009.
  141. Sz. Bérczi; et al., eds. (2004). "Stratigraphy of Special Layers – Transient Ones on Permeable Ones: Examples"(PDF). Lunar and Planetary Science XXXV. Retrieved 12 August 2009.
  142. "NASA Findings Suggest Jets Bursting From Martian Ice Cap". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. NASA. 16 August 2006. Archived from the original on 10 October 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2009.
  143. CJ Hansen; N. Thomas; G. Portyankina; A. McEwen; T. Becker; S. Byrne; K. Herkenhoff; H. Kieffer; M. Mellon (2010). "Observaciones de HiRISE de la actividad impulsada por la sublimación de gas en las regiones polares del sur de Marte: I. Erosión de la superficie" (PDF) . Icarus . 205 (1): 283– 295. Bibcode : 2010Icar..205..283H . doi : 10.1016/j.icarus.2009.07.021 . Archivado del original (PDF) el 3 de marzo de 2016. Recuperado el 26 de julio de 2010 .
  144. Baker, Harry (16 de septiembre de 2024) .Las "arañas en Marte" despiertan por primera vez en la Tierra, y los científicos gritan de alegría . LiveScience . Consultado el 15 de agosto de 2025 .
  • Lorenz, R. 2014. Los susurradores de las dunas. The Planetary Report : 34, 1, 8–14
  • Lorenz, R., J. Zimbelman. 2014. Mundos de dunas: cómo la arena arrastrada por el viento da forma a los paisajes planetarios . Springer Praxis Books / Geophysical Sciences.
  • Grotzinger, J. y R. Milliken (eds.). 2012. Geología sedimentaria de Marte . SEPM.
  • Características de Marte (video: 5:53; Jim Secosky) en YouTube
  • Hielo marciano (vídeo; 26:38; Jim Secosky) 16.ª Convención Anual Internacional de la Sociedad de Marte en YouTube
  • | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-SCOHj8u-A Vídeo sobre el agua en Marte de Jim Secosky (34 minutos)