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Industrial espionage

Teapot with Actresses, Vezzi porcelain factory, Venice, c. 1725 . The Vezzi brothers were involved in a series of incidents of industrial espionage. It was these actions that le...

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Teapot with Actresses, Vezzi porcelain factory, Venice, c.1725. The Vezzi brothers were involved in a series of incidents of industrial espionage. It was these actions that led to the secret of manufacturing Meissen porcelain becoming widely known.

Industrial espionage, also known as economic espionage, corporate spying, or corporate espionage, refers to the systematic and unauthorized acquisition of sensitive business information. This practice typically targets trade secrets, proprietary operational data, and intellectual property belonging to competitors or other organizations. The information is gathered with the intent to gain a competitive advantage, facilitate business decision-making, or for commercial sale to interested parties. Industrial espionage is conducted by various actors, including current or former employees, contractors, corporate competitors, foreign governments, and criminal organizations, and is universally recognized as both illegal and unethical.[1][2]

While political espionage is conducted or orchestrated by governments and is international in scope, industrial or corporate espionage is more often national and occurs between companies or corporations.[3]

Forms of economic and industrial espionage

In short, the purpose of espionage is to gather knowledge about one or more organizations. Economic or industrial espionage takes place in two main forms. It may include the acquisition of intellectual property, such as information on industrial manufacture, ideas, techniques and processes, recipes and formulas. Or it could include sequestration of proprietary or operational information, such as that on customer datasets, pricing, sales, marketing, research and development, policies, prospective bids, planning or marketing strategies or the changing compositions and locations of production.[4] It may describe activities such as theft of trade secrets, bribery, blackmail and technological surveillance. As well as orchestrating espionage on commercial organizations, governments can also be targets – for example, to determine the terms of a tender for a government contract.[5]

Target industries

During testing, automakers commonly disguise upcoming car models with camouflage paint patterns designed to obfuscate the vehicle's lines. Padded covers or deceptive decals are also often used. This is also to prevent motoring media outlets from spoiling the model before its planned reveal.

Economic and industrial espionage is most commonly associated with technology-heavy industries, including computer software and hardware, biotechnology, aerospace, telecommunications, transportation and engine technology, automobiles, machine tools, energy, materials and coatings and so on. Silicon Valley is known to be one of the world's most targeted areas for espionage, though any industry with information of use to competitors may be a target.[6]

Information theft and sabotage

Information can make the difference between success and failure; if a trade secret is stolen, the competitive playing field is leveled or even tipped in favor of a competitor. Although a lot of information-gathering is accomplished legally through competitive intelligence, at times corporations feel the best way to get information is to take it.[7] Economic or industrial espionage is a threat to any business whose livelihood depends on information.

In recent years, economic or industrial espionage has taken on an expanded definition. For instance, attempts to sabotage a corporation may be considered industrial espionage; in this sense, the term takes on the wider connotations of its parent word. That espionage and sabotage (corporate or otherwise) have become more clearly associated with each other is also demonstrated by a number of profiling studies, some government, some corporate. The United States government currently has a polygraph examination entitled the "Test of Espionage and Sabotage" (TES), contributing to the notion of the interrelationship between espionage and sabotage countermeasures.[8] In practice, particularly by "trusted insiders", they are generally considered functionally identical for the purpose of informing countermeasures.

Agents and the process of collection

El espionaje económico o industrial suele ocurrir de dos maneras. En primer lugar, un empleado insatisfecho se apropia de información para promover intereses o perjudicar a la empresa. En segundo lugar, un competidor o gobierno extranjero busca información para promover sus propios intereses tecnológicos o financieros. [ 9 ] Los " topos " o personas de confianza con información privilegiada suelen considerarse las mejores fuentes para el espionaje económico o industrial. [ 10 ] Históricamente conocido como "chivo expiatorio", una persona con información privilegiada puede ser inducida, voluntariamente o bajo coacción , a proporcionar información. A un chivo expiatorio se le puede pedir inicialmente que entregue información intrascendente y, una vez comprometido por cometer un delito, se le puede chantajear para que entregue material más sensible . [ 11 ] Las personas pueden dejar una empresa para trabajar en otra y llevarse consigo información sensible . [ 12 ] Este comportamiento aparente ha sido el foco de numerosos casos de espionaje industrial que han dado lugar a batallas legales. [ 12 ] Algunos países contratan a personas para realizar espionaje en lugar de utilizar sus propias agencias de inteligencia . [ 13 ] Los gobiernos suelen buscar académicos , delegados empresariales y estudiantes para recopilar información. [ 14 ] Se ha informado que algunos países, como Japón, esperan que los estudiantes sean interrogados al regresar a casa. [ 14 ] Un espía puede seguir una visita guiada a una fábrica y luego "perderse". [ 11 ] Un espía podría ser un ingeniero, un técnico de mantenimiento , un limpiador , un vendedor de seguros o un inspector : cualquiera que tenga acceso legítimo a las instalaciones. [ 11 ]

Un espía puede irrumpir en las instalaciones para robar datos y puede buscar entre papeles usados ​​y basura , lo que se conoce como " rebuscar en la basura ". [ 15 ] La información puede verse comprometida mediante solicitudes de información no solicitadas, encuestas de marketing o el uso de soporte técnico, investigación o instalaciones de software. Los productores industriales subcontratados pueden solicitar información fuera del contrato acordado. [ 16 ]

Computers have facilitated the process of collecting information because of the ease of access to large amounts of information through physical contact or the Internet.[17]

History

Origins

The work of a European priest, Father Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles to reveal to Europe the manufacturing methods of Chinese porcelain in 1712, is sometimes considered an early case of industrial espionage.[18]

Economic and industrial espionage has a long history. Father Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles, who visited Jingdezhen, China in 1712 and later used this visit to reveal the manufacturing methods of Chinese porcelain to Europe, is sometimes considered to have conducted an early case of industrial espionage.[18]

Historical accounts have been written of industrial espionage between Britain and France.[19] Attributed to Britain's emergence as an "industrial creditor", the second decade of the 18th century saw the emergence of a large-scale state-sponsored effort to surreptitiously take British industrial technology to France.[19]Witnesses confirmed both the inveigling of tradespersons abroad and the placing of apprentices in England.[20] Protests by those such as ironworkers in Sheffield and steelworkers in Newcastle, about skilled industrial workers being enticed abroad, led to the first English legislation aimed at preventing this method of economic and industrial espionage.[21][20] This did not prevent Samuel Slater from bringing British textile technology to the United States in 1789. To catch up with technological advances of European powers, the US government in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries actively encouraged intellectual piracy.[22][23]

American founding father and first U.S. Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton advocated rewarding those bringing "improvements and secrets of extraordinary value"[24] into the United States. This was instrumental in making the United States a haven for industrial spies.

20th century

East-West commercial development opportunities after World War I saw a rise in Soviet interest in American and European manufacturing know-how, exploited by Amtorg Corporation.[25] Later, with Western restrictions on the export of items thought likely to increase military capabilities to the USSR, Soviet industrial espionage was a well known adjunct to other spying activities up until the 1980s.[26]BYTE reported in April 1984, for example, that although the Soviets sought to develop their own microelectronics, their technology appeared to be several years behind the West's. Soviet CPUs required multiple chips and appeared to be close or exact copies of American products such as the Intel 3000 and DEC LSI-11/2.[27][a]

"Operation Brunnhilde"

Some of these activities were directed via the East German Stasi (Ministry for State Security). One such operation, "Operation Brunnhilde," operated from the mid-1950s until early 1966 and made use of spies from many Communist Bloc countries. Through at least 20 forays, many western European industrial secrets were compromised.[28] One member of the "Brunnhilde" ring was a Swisschemical engineer, Dr. Jean Paul Soupert (also known as "Air Bubble"), living in Brussels. He was described by Peter Wright in Spycatcher as having been "doubled" by the Belgian Sûreté de l'État.[28][29] He revealed information about industrial espionage conducted by the ring, including the fact that Russian agents had obtained details of Concorde's advanced electronics system.[30] He testified against two Kodak employees, living and working in Britain, during a trial in which they were accused of passing information on industrial processes to him, though they were eventually acquitted.[28]

According to a 2020 American Economic Review study, East German industrial espionage in West Germany significantly reduced the gap in total factor productivity between the two countries.[31]

Soviet spetsinformatsiya system

A secret report from the Military-Industrial Commission of the USSR (VPK), from 1979 to 1980, detailed how spetsinformatsiya (Russian: специнформация, "special records") could be used in twelve different military industrial areas. Writing in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Philip Hanson detailed a spetsinformatsiya system in which 12 industrial branch ministries formulated requests for information to aid technological development in their military programs. Acquisition plans were described as operating on 2-year and 5-year cycles with about 3000 tasks underway each year. Efforts were aimed at civilian and military industrial targets, such as in the petrochemical industries. Some information was gathered to compare Soviet technological advancement with that of their competitors. Much unclassified information was also gathered, blurring the boundary with "competitive intelligence".[26]

The Soviet military was recognised as making much better use of acquired information than civilian industries, where their record in replicating and developing industrial technology was poor.[b][26]

Legacy of Cold War espionage

Following the demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, commentators, including the US Congressional Intelligence Committee, noted a redirection amongst the espionage community from military to industrial targets, with Western and former communist countries making use of "underemployed" spies and expanding programs directed at stealing information.[32][33]

The legacy of Cold War spying included not just the redirection of personnel but the use of spying apparatus such as computer databases, scanners for eavesdropping, spy satellites, bugs and wires.[34]

Industrial espionage as part of US foreign policy

Former CIA Director Stansfield Turner stated in 1991, "as we increase emphasis on securing economic intelligence, we will have to spy on the more developed countries—our allies and friends with whom we compete economically—but to whom we turn first for political and military assistance in a crisis. This means that rather than instinctively reaching for human, on-site spying, the United States will want to look to those impersonal technical systems, primarily satellite photography and intercepts".[35]

Former CIA DirectorJames Woolsey acknowledged in 2000 that the United States steals economic secrets from foreign firms and their governments "with espionage, with communications, with reconnaissance satellites". He listed the three reasons as understanding whether sanctions are functioning for countries under sanction, monitoring dual-use technology that could be used to produce or develop weapons, and to spy on bribery.[36]

In 2013 The United States was accused of spying on Brazilian oil company Petrobras. Brazil's President Dilma Rousseff stated that it was tantamount to industrial espionage and had no security justification.[37]

In 2014 former US intelligence officer Edward Snowden stated that the National Security Agency (NSA) was engaged in industrial espionage and that they spied on German companies that compete with US firms. He also highlighted the fact the NSA uses mobile phone apps such as Angry Birds to gather personal data.[38]

According to a 2014 Glenn Greenwald article, "potentially sabotaging another country's hi-tech industries and their top companies has long been a sanctioned American strategy." The article was based on a leaked report issued from former U.S. Director of National IntelligenceJames R. Clapper's office that evaluated how intelligence could be used to overcome a loss of the United States' technological and innovative edge. When contacted, the Director of National Intelligence office responded, "the United States—unlike our adversaries—does not steal proprietary corporate information", and insisted that "the Intelligence Community regularly engages in analytic exercises". The report, he said, "is not intended to be, and is not, a reflection of current policy or operations".[39]

In September 2019, security firm Qi An Xin published report linking the CIA to a series of attacks targeting Chinese aviation agencies between 2012 and 2017.[40][41]

Seizure and Acquisition of Foreign Patents (World War II and Post-War Era)

A significant, state-sponsored transfer of technology occurred during and after World War II, when the U.S. government formally seized patent rights from Axis powers like Germany and Italy[42]. This was followed by programs such as the Technical Industrial Intelligence Committee (TIIC) under the Department of Commerce, which actively dispatched missions to Europe—particularly Germany[43]—to investigate, document, and acquire technical processes and patents. This systematic effort also extended to Allied nations; financially exhausted European countries, including the United Kingdom, were often compelled to make 'voluntary transfers' of intellectual property as a condition for aid or loans. Historians have argued that this large-scale acquisition of foreign intellectual property was a key factor in the post-war technological and industrial ascendancy of the United States, which subsequently licensed much of this Intellectual Property back to European firms.[44]

Israel's economic espionage in the United States

Israel has an active program to gather proprietary information within the United States. These collection activities are primarily directed at obtaining information on military systems and advanced computing applications that can be used in Israel's sizable armaments industry.[45][46]

Israel was accused by the US government of selling US military technology and secrets to China in 1993.[47]

In 2014 American counter-intelligence officials told members of the House Judiciary and Foreign Affairs committees that Israel's current espionage activities in America are "unrivaled".[48]

Use of computers and the Internet

Personal computers

Computers have become key in exercising industrial espionage due to the enormous amount of information they contain and the ease at which it can be copied and transmitted. The use of computers for espionage increased rapidly in the 1990s. Information has commonly been stolen by individuals posing as subsidiary workers, such as cleaners or repairmen, gaining access to unattended computers and copying information from them. Laptops were, and still are, a prime target, with those traveling abroad on business being warned not to leave them for any period of time. Perpetrators of espionage have been known to find many ways of conning unsuspecting individuals into parting, often only temporarily, from their possessions, enabling others to access and steal information.[49] A "bag-op" refers to the use of hotel staff to access data, such as through laptops, in hotel rooms. Information may be stolen in transit, in taxis, at airport baggage counters, baggage carousels, on trains and so on.[15]

The Internet

The rise of the Internet and computer networks has expanded the range and detail of information available and the ease of access for the purpose of industrial espionage.[50] This type of operation is generally identified as state backed or sponsored, because the "access to personal, financial or analytic resources" identified exceed that which could be accessed by cyber criminals or individual hackers. Sensitive military or defense engineering or other industrial information may not have immediate monetary value to criminals, compared with, say, bank details. Analysis of cyberattacks suggests deep knowledge of networks, with targeted attacks, obtained by numerous individuals operating in a sustained organized way.[50]

Opportunities for sabotage

The rising use of the internet has also extended opportunities for industrial espionage with the aim of sabotage. In the early 2000s, energy companies were increasingly coming under attack from hackers. Energy power systems, doing jobs like monitoring power grids or water flow, once isolated from the other computer networks, were now being connected to the internet, leaving them more vulnerable, having historically few built-in security features.[51] The use of these methods of industrial espionage have increasingly become a concern for governments, due to potential attacks by hostile foreign governments or terrorist groups.

Malware

One of the means of perpetrators conducting industrial espionage is by exploiting vulnerabilities in computer software. Malware and spyware are "tool[s] for industrial espionage", in "transmitting digital copies of trade secrets, customer plans, future plans and contacts". Newer forms of malware include devices which surreptitiously switch on mobile phones camera and recording devices. In attempts to tackle such attacks on their intellectual property, companies are increasingly keeping important information "off network," leaving an "air gap", with some companies building Faraday cages to shield from electromagnetic or cellphone transmissions.[52]

Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack

The distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack uses compromised computer systems to orchestrate a flood of requests on the target system, causing it to shut down and deny service to other users.[53] It could potentially be used for economic or industrial espionage with the purpose of sabotage. This method was allegedly used by Russian secret services, over a period of two weeks on a cyberattack on Estonia in May 2007, in response to the removal of a Soviet era war memorial.[54]

Notable cases

East India Company

In 1848, the British East India Company (EIC) broke Qing China's global near-monopoly on tea production by smuggling Chinese tea out of the country and copying Chinese tea-making processes.[55] The British had fallen into a considerable trade deficit with China due to heavily importing tea and other commodities from Chinese retailers, and attempted to rectify the deficit by trading opium, but encountered difficulties after the Daoguang Emperor banned the opium trade and the First Opium War broke out. To avoid having to buy tea from China, the EIC hired the Scottish botanist Robert Fortune to travel to China under the guise of a Chinese merchant and obtain trade secrets and tea plants for replanting. Infiltrating Chinese tea-making facilities, Fortune recorded Chinese processes for creating tea and smuggled tea leaves and seed out of China.[56] The East India Company later introduced these methods to British India, which soon surpassed China in tea production.[57]

France and the United States

Between 1987 and 1989, IBM and Texas Instruments were thought to have been targeted by French DGSE with the intention of helping France's Groupe Bull.[58] In 1993, U.S. aerospace companies were also thought to have been targeted by French interests.[59] During the early 1990s, France was described as one of the most aggressive pursuers of espionage to garner foreign industrial and technological secrets.[58] France accused the U.S. of attempting to sabotage its high tech industrial base.[58] The government of France allegedly continues to conduct ongoing industrial espionage against American aerodynamics and satellite companies.[60]

Volkswagen

In 1993, car manufacturer Opel, the German division of General Motors, accused Volkswagen of industrial espionage after Opel's chief of production, Jose Ignacio Lopez, and seven other executives moved to Volkswagen.[12] Volkswagen subsequently threatened to sue for defamation, resulting in a four-year legal battle.[12] The case, which was finally settled in 1997, resulted in one of the largest settlements in the history of industrial espionage, with Volkswagen agreeing to pay General Motors $100 million and to buy at least $1 billion of car parts from the company over 7 years, although it did not explicitly apologize for Lopez's behavior.[61]

Hilton and Starwood

In April 2009, Starwood accused its rival Hilton Worldwide of a "massive" case of industrial espionage. After being acquired by The Blackstone Group, Hilton employed 10 managers and executives from Starwood. Starwood accused Hilton of stealing corporate information relating to its luxury brand concepts, used in setting up its Denizen hotels. Specifically, former head of its luxury brands group, Ron Klein, was accused of downloading "truckloads of documents" from a laptop to his personal email account.[62]

Amazon

Amazon is alleged to have used a 75% owned shell company ("Big River") to perform corporate espionage on its rivals eBay, Shopify, and Walmart.[63][64]

Google and Operation Aurora

El 13 de enero de 2010, Google anunció que operadores, desde dentro de China, habían pirateado su operación Google China, robando propiedad intelectual y, en particular, accediendo a las cuentas de correo electrónico de activistas de derechos humanos. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] Se creía que el ataque había sido parte de un ciberataque más generalizado contra empresas dentro de China que se ha dado a conocer como Operación Aurora . [ 66 ] Se creía que los intrusos habían lanzado un ataque de día cero , explotando una vulnerabilidad en el navegador Microsoft Internet Explorer , el malware utilizado era una modificación del troyano " Hydraq ". [ 52 ] Preocupados por la posibilidad de que los piratas informáticos aprovecharan esta vulnerabilidad previamente desconocida en Internet Explorer, los gobiernos de Alemania y, posteriormente, de Francia, emitieron advertencias para que no se utilizara el navegador . [ 67 ]

Se especuló que personas internas habían estado involucradas en el ataque, y a algunos empleados de Google China se les negó el acceso a las redes internas de la empresa después del anuncio. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] En febrero de 2010, expertos en informática de la Agencia de Seguridad Nacional de EE. UU. afirmaron que los ataques a Google probablemente se originaron en dos universidades chinas asociadas con la experiencia en ciencias de la computación , la Universidad Jiao Tong de Shanghái y la Escuela Vocacional Lanxiang de Shandong , esta última con estrechos vínculos con el ejército chino . [ 70 ]

Google claimed at least 20 other companies had also been targeted in the cyber attack, said by the London Times, to have been part of an "ambitious and sophisticated attempt to steal secrets from unwitting corporate victims" including "defence contractors, finance and technology companies".[66][65][67] Rather than being the work of individuals or organised criminals, the level of sophistication of the attack was thought to have been "more typical of a nation state".[65] Some commentators speculated as to whether the attack was part of what is thought to be a concerted Chinese industrial espionage operation aimed at getting "high-tech information to jump-start China's economy".[71] Critics pointed to what was alleged to be a lax attitude to the intellectual property of foreign businesses in China, letting them operate but then seeking to copy or reverse engineer their technology for the benefit of Chinese "national champions".[72] In Google's case, they may have (also) been concerned about the possible misappropriation of source code or other technology for the benefit of Chinese rival Baidu. In March 2010 Google subsequently decided to cease offering censored results in China, leading to the closing of its Chinese operation.

USA v. Lan Lee, et al.

The United States charged two former NetLogic Inc. engineers, Lan Lee and Yuefei Ge, of committing economic espionage against TSMC and NetLogic, Inc. A jury acquitted the defendants of the charges with regard to TSMC and deadlocked on the charges with regard to NetLogic. In May 2010, a federal judge dismissed all the espionage charges against the two defendants. The judge ruled that the U.S. government presented no evidence of espionage.[73]

Concerns of national governments

Brazil

Revelations from the Snowden documents have provided information to the effect that the United States, notably vis-à-vis the NSA, has been conducting aggressive economic espionage against Brazil.[74] Canadian intelligence has apparently supported U.S. economic espionage efforts.[75]

China

The Chinese cybersecurity company Qihoo 360 accused the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States of an 11-year-long hacking campaign[76] that targeted several industries including aviation organizations, scientific research institutions, petroleum firms, internet companies, and government agencies.[77]

United States

A 2009 report to the US government, by aerospace and defense company Northrop Grumman, describes Chinese economic espionage as comprising "the single greatest threat to U.S. technology".[50] Blogging on the 2009 cyber attack on Google, Joe Stewart of SecureWorks referred to a "persistent campaign of 'espionage-by-malware' emanating from the People's Republic of China (PRC)" with both corporate and state secrets being "Shanghaied".[78] The Northrop Grumman report states that the collection of US defense engineering data stolen through cyberattacks is regarded as having "saved the recipient of the information years of R&D and significant amounts of funding".[50] Concerns about the extent of cyberattacks has led to the situation being described as the dawn of a "new cold cyberwar".[79]

According to Edward Snowden, the National Security Agency spies on foreign companies.[80] In June 2015 Wikileaks published documents about the National Security Agency spying on French companies.[81]

United Kingdom

During December 2007, it was suddenly revealed that Jonathan Evans, head of the United Kingdom's MI5, had sent out confidential letters to 300 chief executives and security chiefs at the country's banks, accountants and legal firms warning of attacks from Chinese 'state organisations'.[82] A summary was also posted on the secure website of the Centre for the Protection of the National Infrastructure, accessed by some of the nation's 'critical infrastructure' companies, including 'telecoms firms, banks and water and electricity companies'.[83] One security expert warned about the use of 'custom trojans,' software specifically designed to hack into a particular firm and feed back data.[83] Whilst China was identified as the country most active in the use of internet spying, up to 120 other countries were said to be using similar techniques.[83] The Chinese government responded to UK accusations of economic espionage by saying that the report of such activities was 'slanderous' and that the government opposed hacking which is prohibited by law.[84]

Germany

German counter-intelligence experts have maintained the German economy is losing around €53 billion or the equivalent of 30,000 jobs to economic espionage yearly.[85]

In Operation Eikonal, German BND agents received "selector lists" from the NSA – search terms for their dragnet surveillance. They contain IP addresses, mobile phone numbers and email accounts with the BND surveillance system containing hundreds of thousands and possibly more than a million such targets.[86] These lists have been subject of controversy as in 2008 it was revealed that they contained some terms targeting the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS), the Eurocopter project[87] as well as French administration,[88][86] which were first noticed by BND employees in 2005.[87] After the revelations made by whistleblower Edward Snowden, the BND decided to investigate the issue whose October 2013 conclusion was that at least 2,000 of these selectors were aimed at Western European or even German interests which has been a violation of the Memorandum of Agreement that the US and Germany signed in 2002 in the wake of the 9/11 terror attacks.[86] After reports emerged in 2014 that EADS and Eurocopter had been surveillance targets the Left Party and the Greens filed an official request to obtain evidence of the violations.[86][89]

The BND's project group charged with supporting the NSA investigative committee in German parliament set up in spring 2014, reviewed the selectors and discovered 40,000 suspicious search parameters, including espionage targets in Western European governments and numerous companies. The group also confirmed suspicions that the NSA had systematically violated German interests and concluded that the Americans could have perpetrated economic espionage directly under the Germans' noses.[86][90] The investigative parliamentary committee was not granted access to the NSA's selectors list as an appeal led by opposition politicians failed at Germany's top court. Instead the ruling coalition appointed an administrative judge, Kurt Graulich, as a "person of trust" who was granted access to the list and briefed the investigative commission on its contents after analyzing the 40,000 parameters.[91][92] In his almost 300-paged report[93] Graulich concluded that European government agencies were targeted massively and that Americans hence broke contractual agreements. He also found that German targets which received special protection from surveillance of domestic intelligence agencies by Germany's Basic Law (Grundgesetz) − including numerous enterprises based in Germany – were featured in the NSA's wishlist in a surprising plenitude.[94]

Competitive intelligence and economic or industrial espionage

"Competitive intelligence" involves the legal and ethical activity of systematically gathering, analyzing and managing information on industrial competitors.[95] It may include activities such as examining newspaper articles, corporate publications, websites, patent filings, specialised databases, information at trade shows and the like to determine information on a corporation.[96] The compilation of these crucial elements is sometimes termed CIS or CRS, a Competitive Intelligence Solution or Competitive Response Solution, with its roots in market research. Douglas Bernhardt has characterised "competitive intelligence" as involving "the application of principles and practices from military and national intelligence to the domain of global business";[97] it is the commercial equivalent of open-source intelligence.

The difference between competitive intelligence and economic or industrial espionage is not clear; one needs to understand the legal basics to recognize how to draw the line between the two.[98][99]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑These technologies, however, were not streamlined or industrialized. Some of these findings were applied on plants used to produce chips for military purposes.
  2. ↑This may be explained by the fact that the defense industry was supported better than a civil one.

References

  1. ↑Hou, Tie; Wang, Victoria (2020). "Industrial espionage – A systematic literature review (SLR)". Computers & Security. 98 102019. doi:10.1016/j.cose.2020.102019.
  2. ↑"Unusual suspects: Cyber-spying grows bigger and more boring". The Economist. 25 May 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
  3. ↑Nasheri 2005, p. 10.
  4. ↑Nasheri 2005, pp. 8, 10, 73.
  5. ↑"U.S.C. Title 18 – CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE". www.govinfo.gov. Retrieved 3 December 2025.
  6. ↑Nasheri 2005, p. 9.
  7. ↑Scalet 2003, p. 3.
  8. ↑Department of Defense 2002.
  9. ↑Nasheri 2005, p. 7.
  10. ↑Nasheri 2005, pp. 80–81.
  11. 123Palmer 1974, p. 12.
  12. 1234Reuters 1996.
  13. ↑Nasheri 2005, p. 80.
  14. 12Nasheri 2005, p. 88.
  15. 12Nasheri 2005, p. 82.
  16. ↑Nasheri 2005, p. 84.
  17. ↑"What are the advantages of using a computer?". www.computerhope.com. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
  18. 12Rowe & Brook 2009, p. 84.
  19. 12Harris 1998, p. 7.
  20. 12Harris 1998, p. 9.
  21. ↑Harris 1998, p. 8.
  22. ↑Ben-Atar, Doron (2004). Trade Secrets: Intellectual Piracy and the Origins of American Industrial Power. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300100068.
  23. ↑"The Spies Who Launched America's Industrial Revolution". www.history.com. 10 January 2019.
  24. ↑Hamilton, Alexander (1791). Report on manufactures. United States.
  25. ↑Zelchenko, Henry L. (February 1952). "Stealing America's Know-How: The Story of Amtorg". American Mercury. 74 (338): 75–84.
  26. 123Hanson 1987.
  27. ↑Heuertz, Ruth (April 1984). "Soviet Microprocessors and Microcomputers". BYTE. p. 348. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  28. 123Palmer 1974, p. 13.
  29. ↑Wright 1987, p. 183.
  30. ↑Wright 1987, p. 184.
  31. ↑Glitz, Albrecht; Meyersson, Erik (2020). "Industrial Espionage and Productivity". American Economic Review. 110 (4): 1055–1103. doi:10.1257/aer.20171732. hdl:10230/33897. ISSN 0002-8282. S2CID 27286076.
  32. ↑Nodoushani & Nodoushani 2002.
  33. ↑Nasheri 2005, p. 53.
  34. ↑Nasheri 2005, pp. 53–54.
  35. ↑Goldsmith, Jack (23 March 2015). "The Precise (and Narrow) Limits on U.S. Economic Espionage". www.lawfareblog.com.
  36. ↑Woolsey, James (7 March 2000). "Intelligence Gathering and Democracies: The Issue of Economic and Industrial Espionage". Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
  37. ↑"NSA spying on Petrobras, if proven, is industrial espionage: Rousseff". Reuters. 9 September 2013.
  38. ↑"NSA 'engaged in industrial espionage' – Snowden". BBC. 26 January 2014.
  39. ↑Greenwald, Glenn (5 September 2014). "The U.S. Government's Secret Plans to Spy for American Corporations". The Intercept.
  40. ^ "美国中央情报局网络武器库分析与披露" . qianxin .
  41. ↑ "Empresa china de seguridad informática acusa a grupo respaldado por la CIA de numerosos ciberataques" . itwire.com
  42. ↑ Gimbel, John (1990). Ciencia, tecnología y reparaciones: explotación y saqueo en la Alemania de posguerra . Stanford University Press.
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Further reading

  • Barry, Marc; Penenberg, Adam L (2000). Spooked: Espionage in Corporate America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Publishing. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-7382-0593-9.
  • "Stuxnet worm hits Iran nuclear plant staff computers". BBC News. BBC. 26 September 2010. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
  • Fink, Steven (2002). Sticky Fingers: Managing the Global Risk of Economic Espionage. Chicago: Dearborn Trade. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-7931-4827-1.
  • Fitchett, Joseph (19 July 1995). "French Report Accuses U.S. of Industrial Sabotage Campaign". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2010.
  • Guynn, Jessica (15 January 2010). "Chinese hackers pose a growing threat to U.S. firms". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
  • Byron, Betty (2013). The Iris Covenant. New York: Tate Publishing. p. 454. ISBN 978-1-62295-014-0.
  • Helft, Miguel; Markoff, John (13 January 2010). "In Rebuke of China, Focus Falls on Cybersecurity". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
  • Javers, Eamon (2010). Broker, Trader, Lawyer, Spy: The Secret World of Corporate Espionage. New York: Harper Collins Business. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-06-169720-3.
  • Keizer, Gregg (9 December 2010). "Pro-WikiLeaks cyber army gains strength; thousands join DDoS attacks". Computerworld. Archived from the original on 10 October 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
  • Kennedy, John (10 December 2010). "Is your kid part of the 'Operation Payback' army?". Silicon Republic. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
  • Macartney, Jan (9 February 2010). "Chinese police arrest six as hacker training website is closed down". The Times. Archived from the original on 31 May 2010. Retrieved 13 February 2010.
  • Murphy, Samantha (9 December 2010). "WikiLeaks Hactivism is Not Cyberwarfare, Experts Say". Tech News Daily. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
  • Pitorri, Peter (2010). Counterespionage for American Business. Chicago: Butterworth-Heinemann Limited. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-7506-7044-9.
  • Rustmann, F.W. Jr. (2002). CIA, INC.: Espionage and the Craft of Business Intelligence. Dulles, VA: Potomac Books. p. 240. ISBN 978-1-57488-520-0.
  • Swinford, Steven (10 December 2010). "WikiLeaks hackers threaten British Government". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
  • Winker, Ira. (1997). Corporate Espionage: What It Is, Why It's Happening in Your Company, What You Must Do About It. Darby, PA: Darby, PA. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-7881-6529-0.